Rapid Hydrological Appraisal Implementation at Upper Brantas Watershed, East Java, Indonesia
By University of Brawijaya

Author: Widianto, Didik Suprayogo, Sudarto, Iva Dewi Lestariningsih

 

Sumber Brantas Watershed is one out of five subcatchments of the Upper Brantas River, situated in Batu District (East Java) and covering an area about 174 km². Recently, the hydrology of the watershed was considered to be degraded in terms of the quality and quantity of water yield.

The study was aimed to implement the “rapid appraisal” of hydrological condition in the study site, to learn the stakeholders’ perceptions on the watershed management and to build an understanding among stakeholders in order to select the best watershed magemenent practices. This watershed condition stages is considered that the degradation processes completed and the prospects of early start of rehabilitation go on. Water availability is the most important problem that is occurred in Sumber Brantas watershed. Fast floods were more often during the rainy seasons, while droughts were more severe during the dry seasons. Many spring water dried out in the dry seasons, and two-third of them dried out permanently in the last decade. The conditions was often related to the rapid change of landuse in the watershed. The natural forest and gardens were converted into shrub area and settlement. Analysis on landsat images from 1989 and 2002 showed that 1,322 ha of natural forest and 1,095 ha of gardens has disappeared. Further analysis showed that the area of shrubs, settlements and rainfed agriculture (dry land) were increasing during that period (Figure 1).

 

Main Result

There are three groups of watershed stakeholder i.e. local community (LEK), policy makers (PEK) and researchers or facilitators (MEK). In general, the concern (Tabel 1,2 and 3) perceptions (Tabel 4) on watershed hydrology among the three goups of stakeholders in Sumber Brantas watershed tends to be similar. The LEK was assessed from farmers (both forest farmer and non forest farmer), local businessman, and local NGO. Meanwhile, the PEK was assessed from the governmental institution both province and Batu Regency level, and also from ESP (Environmental Services Program). There are twelve institution at province level including BPDAS Brantas, Perum Jasa Tirta I, Dinas Kehutanan, Perhutani KPH Malang, etc. Whereas the Batu city level consists of twenty four institutions related with water and natural resources management in Sumber Brantas watershed.

Figure 1. Land use change (in hectare unit) in Sumber Brantas Watershed analyzed from 1989 and 2002 landsat image

Tabel 1. Local Ecology Stakeholders concern on Ecosystem goods and services provided by healthy watersheds
 

No	Stakeholders	concern
	Farmers/Local people at forest margin	Improving livelihood through Community Based Forest Management;  Flash-floods; soil erosion, landslide, water availability in dry season; land use conflict and forest function, biodiversity conservation and non timber forest product utilization.
	Farmers/Local people at downstream	Flash-floods; water pollution due to solid and gray waste, water availability in dry season for irrgiation; Integrated Pest Management to reduce chemical pesticide;   Continues supply of water for developing management on water delivery by local community;
	NGO	Flash-floods, soil erosion, landslide; water pollution due to solid and gray waste, water availability in dry season; land use conflict and forest function; forest rehabilitation, RUPES implementation, in force in implementation for environmental regulation
	Businessman	Continues water availability in dry season for business;

Tabel 2. Policy Ecological at national and province level and downstream Stakeholders concern on Ecosystem goods and services provided by healthy watersheds
 

No	Stakeholders	concern
PEK at national and province level and downstream
	BAPEDALDA Jatim  (Environmental authority at province level)	Spring protection; Environment education; implementation for clean water in the river.
	BBWS Kali Brantas (Brantas water resources authority)	Water resource management in the river
	Dinas Kehutanan Jawa Timur (Forest authority at province level)	Coordination for forest management  base on Governor policy
	Tahura R Soerjo (Forest conservation authority at province level)	Forest biodiversity conservation;  water resource conservation.
	BP DAS Brantas	Implementation of Micro catchment for soil and water conservation; activating watershed forum; Monitoring and evaluation of watershed performance
	Perum Perhutani KPH Malang	Forest business through Community Based Forest Management
	Perum Jasa Tirta I	Water resources business or RUPES implementation by using existing water management infrastructure; reservoir sedimentation; water quality;  water availability in dry season
	Dinas Pekerjaan Umum Pengairan Jatim (Water resources  authority at province level)	Coordination water resources management  base on Governor policy
	Dinas Energi dan Sumber daya Mineral Jatim (Energy and mining t authority at province level)	Utilization and conservation of ground water
	Dinas Kesehatan (Sanimas) Jatim (Health authority at province level)	Community Health improvement through environment sanitation
	PDAM Kota Malang (Public Water Service)	Water flow stability, water quality, sedimentation;  and conflict on autonomy region  for spring water economic valuation
	Environmental Service Propram (ESP)- USAID	Diarrhea  protection for  Children health through community health education, environment sanitation; water delivery, solid waste management, and water protection in watershed
	University	Research, education and community services

Tabel 3. Policy Ecological at Batu Regency level Stakeholders concern on Ecosystem goods and services provided by healthy watersheds

No	Stakeholders	Concern
	DPRD (Legislative) and burgomaster	Implementation of Batu sustainable green areas and ecotourism;
	BAPPEDA (Local Planning Agency)	Implementation Land Use Planning with policy that Protection  area  52% (10,352 Ha) and cultivation area   48% (9,555 Ha) of total area  of  Batu regency.
	Dinas Pertanian dan Kehutanan (Forest and Agriculture Local Agency)	Community development for land and forest rehabilitation .
	Dinas Lingkungan Hidup (Environment Local Agency)	Environmental management through water quality and sanitation
	Dinas Bina Marga dan Pengairan  (water resource management  Local Agency)	Water resources management for community and farmers;  Flood hazard rescue.
	Dinas Kesehatan (Health Local Agency)	Implementing Healthy Environment for  community life
	Dinas Cipta Karya dan Pemukiman	Planning on infrastructure development for clean water delivery
	Kantor Pemberdayaan Masyarakat	Improving livelihood through Community Development in marginal village;
	Kantor Koperasi dan UKM	Training and facilitation for community entrepreneur  and cooperation management
	PDAM Kota Batu	Water flow stability, water quality, for water resources local government business
	MUSPIKA (Judicative)	Low enforcement for environment protection

Tabel 4. Issues and perceptions about water and hydrological condition in Sumber Brantas watershed

No	Issues / Perception	LEK	PEK
1	Threat for the recharge area: law enforcement, implementation of regulation  and  negotiation support for environmental protection
	·     Impact		Rate of water infiltration is low
	·     Cause		Settlement and industry development
	·     Solution		Environmental service mechanism
2	Water availability: how to increase low flow? And how to manage water delivery for stakeholder need fairly
	·     Impact	Horizontal conflict for water using both domestic and agricultural necessity	Related with cost sharing
	·     Cause	Disappearing the water springs because of deforestation	The same as LEK
	·     Solution	Planting tree around the water springs area	The same as LEK
3	Flooding
	·     Type	Flash-floods	The same as LEK
	·     Cause	Deforestation in Perhutani forest	The same as LEK
	·     Solution	Reforestation with some kind of woody plan such as mahoni, suren, pinus, as well as production plant such as durian, jack fruit, etc.	The same as LEK
4	Soil Erosion
	·     Impact	Decreasing of water quality	Sedimentation at reservoir
	·     Cause	The amount of soil erosion was caused by land slope and miss management (no terrace) and not significantly influenced by landcover	Both miss management on soil and landuse change (forest to agricultural land)
	·     Solution	Building terraces will reduce soil erosion and planting bamboo for vegetation strips along the river side will impede the sediment into the river	Soil conservation technique and reforestation
5	Landslides
	·     Impact	Take a big attention if the landslide resulted a big damage	The same as LEK
	·     Cause	Heavy rain or excessive of water and generally caused by deforestation	The same as LEK
	·     Solution	Reforestration	The same as LEK
6	Water Pollution: Potential loss of river water quality
	·     Impact	It can be function as soil fertilizer, but sometimes it can drive a disease for their agricultural plant	Contaminate water springs, river and soil
	·     Cause	Livestock and domestic sources	Livestock, domestic, industry, tourism and agricultural sources
	·     Solution	Natural removal : rain and river	Building wetland and TPA
7	Forest border	o    Forest is an area filling with trees both natural and artificial and under authority of government. o    Even there is no trees (landcover) on this area, it still called as forest

The results of water-balance model support the perception of LEK and PEK as mentioned above. The three groups of stakeholders also agreed that the discharge of main river (Upper Brantas river) depends on seasonal rainfall variability. During rainy seasons, the river discharge tends to be very high, while in dry seasons it dries up. The discharge ratio between rainy and dry season is high and tends to increase annually (Tabel 5). The amplitude of maximum and minimum discharges is affected by percentage of forest area in the watershed.

Tabel 5. Discharge ratio of several landuse condition in Sumber Brantas Watershed

Landuse	Discharge Rasio (Dry season/wet season)
Landuse at 1989	0.51
Landuse at 2002	0.39
Landuse at 2006	0.38
Landuse RTRW & recovered forest	0.66

The fluctuations of river discharge and the floods frequency is related to the percentage of forest area in the upstream. The above perceptions is supported by modellers as indicated by the calculated discharge through simulation model under various scenarios of land cover areas. Reduction of forest area in the watershed will increase the amplitude of maximum and minimum discharge. The simulation also shows extremely high discharges or floodings following heavy rainfall events (Figure 2).

 

Figure 2. Fluctuation of river discharge due to the difference of landuse proportion
 

Comparing the simulated discharge using the GenRiver model to the actual field measurement shows a poor relation (R2 = 0.074). The measured discharge data collected by PJT 1 (Perum Jasa Tirta I) seems to have unexpected trends that cannot be explained well by the available supporting data such as rainfall data. However, the simulated discharge upon some landuse scenarios indicates some acceptable preferences compared to the actual field condition (Figure 3).

 

Figure 3. Actual (blue line) and prediction (red line) discharge resulted from model simulation

Additionally, the discussion among the stakeholders focused on the two major topics, ie. How to provide suitable indicator that reflect a good water condition (both quantity and quality) and what kind of effort designed to achieve it. In general, the indicators that agreed by all stakeholders are the sustainability of water availability (sufficient in wet season as well as dry season), fulfill the requirements of healthy water (quality) and a good mechanism for water management and environmental services.

In conclusion, Sumber Brantas Watershed is an example of frontier landscape where there are the degradation processes completed and the prospects of early start of rehabilitation. The similarity of perception among stakeholders in the watershed will give chance to find the best management plan and practices in the near future. But there is still a problem to bring the stakeholders to sit together discussing their opinion, perception and hope on the future of the watershed. An appropriate system and mechanism of coordination and communication among stakeholders is certainly needed to build better understanding of the watershed. Environmental service mechanism can be potentially developed in Sumber Brantas watershed, since the early initiative has been explored and practiced by some stakeholders, such as Perum Jasa Tirta I. Therefore, future development of reward mechanisms can be based on (1) Shared responsibility for maintaining Tahura R Soeryo forest and its biodiversity, (2) Development of Reward mechanism (for example: Payments of tax) to local community to support community action plan that they are already familiar to develop activity through field school for environmental protection, (3) Goodwill enhancing payments to the local community to improve their livelihood; (4) Incentives to community group (for example: LMDH, Fokal Mesra, KTT Tahura, IPPHTI; KTNA, Farm Group) to rehabilitate land and forest and maintain existing forest covers and avoid degradation, reducing threats to watershed functions; Development of reward mechanism could be linked to activities that (i) anticipate the threat for the recharge area: law enforcement, implementation of regulation and negotiation support for inveronmental protection (ii) to improve water availability: how to increase low flow? And how to manage water delivery for stakeholder need fairly?, (iii) to regulate soil erosion, sedimentation, land slide and flash-floods, (iv) to minimized water pollution: (to anticipate potential loss of river water quality); (v) to support implementation for land use plan by local government. Monitoring river flow and quality by community group should also be part of the activities.

Reflection on the methodology

1. Sumber Brantas watershed is an ideal place to conduct the tool. It is very enable to manage the watershed in one unit of management due to its extent and administration condition. Almost 100% of its area lied in Batu city that is occupied in one of management or administration system. This situation supports and makes the LEK and PEK survey easier. Otherwise, if the tools will conducted in a complex administration area, it will need more effort to do so.
2. The existing dynamic activities by stakeholders in Sumber Brantas watershed for environmental protection made the RHA work to run effectively and efficiently. However, the activities still run by each stakeholder with their own aim and target and have weak coordination. The development of watershed forum is needed as mechanism for negotiation support among stakeholders with similar direction of aim and target for watershed management.
3. The hydrological system in Sumber Brantas watershed is a simple one. Logically, it will make the modeling analysis is more easy. But, the absence of discharge station finally enlarges the scope of study area. The consequences are more data, time and effort to be done.
4. The quality of secondary data such as rain and discharge data could not be fully trusted. It needs to be verified and validated so that it will be time consuming. Moreover, if the data error comes from the data handle by source institution.
5. GenRiver model needs to be understanding by user. It is not only about operating the tool but also understanding how the model was built. Error on running this model can be solved if the user understand the model concept.
    

back to top ▲ Rapid Hydrological Appraisal (RHA) in Ciliwung Watershed, West Java, Indonesia
By Bogor Agricultural University (IPB)

Author: Kaswanto, Department of Landscape Architecture, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB)

Background

Polemics caused by natural resources degradation in watershed area is still being a big concern recently. Therefore an urgent and huge step have to develop and overcome for the needs of stakeholders and public communites. One of the approach which has been done with quick problem solve related to hidrological condition in watershed area is Rapid Hydrological Appraisal (RHA). A ’rapid appraisal’ (the six-months period) in conducting this approach could help to improve the decision making process inside goverment structure to cooperate with short-periode of their policy (five years period). The RHA approach is very helpfull to construct early opinion about condition of water quality and quantity in watershed area. Degradation of water quality caused by pesticide over-utilization in upperstream, and also the increasing of water quantity caused by land use changing in watershed area were believed could to be approached by RHA analysis.

Basically, the RHA approach is tried to gather three types of knowledge function. In active discussion between upland (or upperstream) and lowland (or downstream) communities, public policy makers and scientists. Those three types knowledge were called as local ecological knowledge (LEK), policy ecological knowledge (PEK) and modellers ecological knowledge (MEK). The negotiation would be accomplished between those multiple stakeholders as part of ’Rewarding Upland Poor for the Environmental Services the provide’ (RUPES) mechanism, to find out how the rewards can be channelled effectively and to enhance or at least to maintain the function each natural resources sustainly. They could sit together to solve the problems with the best decision in the past, present, or in the near future. And then, let hopes that the four aspects of RUPES mechanism, i.e. value, threat, opportunity and trust could be enable to increasing an appraisal of opportunities in negotiating for sustainable watershed function in eco-centric aspect. Again, let believe that the rapid result from RHA could help goverment (PEK) as a decision maker to conduct any regulation and action needed over a period of five years of their reign.

The aims for conducting the RHA approach are:

1. To study the RHA approach as an alternative method for analysis the main factor causes degradation of hidrological condition in Upper-Middle Ciliwung Watershed area.
2. To help construct an early opinion in the watershed function in understanding for three types of knowledge, i.e. LEK, PEK and MEK.
3. To analyze quality and quantity of hydrological aspect as well that could be able to provide some instruments for downstream communities to appreciate upperstream communities.

 

Study Site

The research was conducted in Ciliwung Watershed that located in Bogor and Puncak Region and limited to upper and middle part which is covered by eleven sub-districts in upper stream and middle stream. There are six sub-districts were in Bogor District (Kabupaten Bogor), i.e. Cisarua, Megamendung, Ciawi, Sukaraja, Bojonggede and Cibinong. The rest of five sub-districts were in Bogor City (Kota Bogor), i.e. Bogor Selatan, Bogor Tengah, Bogor Timur, Bogor Utara and Tanah Sareal.

The Ciliwung Watershed delineation was based on contour level from digital elevation model (DEM) that was formed from topographical map of BAKOSURTANAL. This DEM have been used widely for many research activities in watershed scales. Location selection according to several considerations as follow:

1. Republic of Indonesia Presidential Decree Number 114 year 1999 about Spatial Region Planning for Bogor – Puncak - Cianjur Region.
2. Republic of Indonesia Government Regulation Number 47 Year 1997 about National Spatial Planning, Bogor – Puncak - Cianjur Region.
3. Research Cooperation between Directorate General of Higher Education (DGHE) and Department of Landscape Architecture IPB under the Project of Graduate School Grant phase IV in 2006-2008 periods.
4. Research cooperation between the University of Tokyo and IPB under the Research Unit for Biological Resources Development (RUBRD) in 1998 - 2007 periods.

 

Rapid Hydrological Appraisal (RHA)

The current RHA approach was conducted from a comprehensive ten main phases, framework analysis and watershed management developed by ICRAF-SEA as negotiation support system (NSS) (van Noorwidjk et. al. 2004). Detailed driven factor of RHA domains, i.e. landscape (L), socioeconomic relations – household level (S), watershed function (W), improved land use or agroforestry technology (A) and NSS itself were explained in RHA manual by ICRAF-SEA.

Implementation of RHA method could be adaptable within site condition (Table 1), because some areas in Indonesia have unique charaterictics each other. In general, the six-months of RHA method consists of five main phases of activities (Jeanes, et. al., 2006), i.e:

1. 'Inception' and reconnaissance of stakeholders and 'issues' (month 1)
2. 'Baseline data collection- desktop survey' of (grey) literature and reports (months 2-4)
3. 'Baseline data collection fieldwork': ground truthing for spatial analysis, participatory landscape analysis, LEK, and PEK surveys (months 3-4)
4. 'Data processing' (MEK) and Scenario analysis (months 3-5)
5. 'Communication' and refinement of the findings (month 6).

 

Result and Discussion

Concept of Integrated Planning and Management Watershed Area

Some concepts of integrated planning and management (IPM) were occurred during this research activity. The IPM concepts were studied in ten-phases, i.e. (1) vision and objective formulation, (2) potential agrotourism area analysis, (3) supply and demand analysis, (4) scenario and alternative, (5) public hearing, (6) detailed assessment, (7) supporting infrastructure, (8) implementation, (9) consultation, and (10) Review. Each of these phases has different output and up until now this research has reach the fourth phase. Next phase will be done as a dissemination process for watershed area at micro level and more detail until the IPM process will be right targeted and appropriated resources. As a part of dissemination process, the infrastructure designed should support the subsystem farming from on-farm and off-farm agriculture to increase production of recommended commodities. Those infrastructure are includes transportation facilities (roads and vehicles), water supply, sub-terminal agribusiness (STA) and storage locations (warehouses).

Agrotourism Development as Environmental Services Program

Agrotourism development as rewarding for environmental services is perceived suitable to overcome the existing problem so far. Actual conditions which are stated by PEK through Agribusiness Agency of Bogor City only cover the micro-level, limited only to the potential district. While Agribusiness Agency of Bogor District stated that the agrotourism activities only conducted by private and investor company. The transect result of agrotourism activities along the Upper-Middle Ciliwung Watershed showed two potential area, i.e. Bogor Botanical Garden and PTPN VIII Gunung Mas.

In general, recent monitoring on actual condition are still in top-down process or just come from government policies (or PEK) which are still in administrative boundary and some of them are not in accordance to ecological condition tread. Therefore, the ecological approach was believed to be a best approach than the administrative approach, besides it provides a good conservation, and also more suitable in agro-ecological zones factors. The ecological ability of environmental carrying capacity (ECC) based on population prediction are still in the allowed tolerance level. Factors of site characteristics, management and social condition although are pass the allowed threshold, but they are still suitable to support agrotourism activities in general. The population in this watershed will reach more than six hundreds thousands peoples with density around three thousand in a kilometer square. This should be a government role to concern ECC aspects in the near future.

Related to the role of government, Republic of Indonesia Law Act No. 22 year 1999 stated clearly that the authority of the central and local government in tourism sectors, and also Republic Indonesia Government Regulation No. 25 year 2000 about local government autonomy. These two regulations gave central government an authority includes three things, namely the determination of guidelines for tourism sector development, setting guidelines for international cooperation of tourism, and the establishment of standards or norms of tourism facilities. While for the local government is given the widest authority in the management of resources to develop the tourism sector. Therefore, the local government of Bogor City and Bogor District should use this authority to explore the potential of agrotourism existing resources.

Supply and Demand Concept

Supply and demand flow is absolutely necessary to arrange a scheme in order to predict the pattern of planning process in watershed level. The supply factors are such as agrotourism products and services that developed as activities, facilities and asset of agrotourism itself. While the demand factors are agrotourism profile and market situation, market trend and consumer needs.
The supply factors are the result of about suitable areas which according to this research are deserved to be agrotourism area. The amount of these potentials and opportunities are expected to be able to anticipate the increased numbers of demand in last couple years along the population growth increasing rapidly. The number of visiting tourist attraction shows the demand for tourism activities remain a potential opportunity and deserves to be developed.

Standard space requirement for normal recreation or tourism is 10 acres (equal to 40,467.1 m²) per 1000 visitors (Lancaster, 1990). In prediction year of 2014 with a population around five million peoples, the spacers need to be available is 22.3 km² (only 17.4% of present agricultural land). Thus for the next 10 years with this current agriculture area 127.8 km² (or 55.2% of total watershed area), the normal tourism activities are still allowed. Particularly, the communities inside the watershed with 823,706 persons in 2014 require area around 3.3 km² or just 2.6% of present agricultural land (Figure 1).

Those calculations conclude the potential of supply factors for development of watershed area is reached two times higher (232.5%) compare to the existing demand factors at this time. Thus, the concept of agrotourism development as one of rewarding for environmental services should be discussed and analyzed in one frame relations of supply and demand factors. The increasing demand should be balances with adequate preparation for tourism activities. However, this supply and demand concept requires the role of management, within triangle relationship as usual.

Implementation of Integrated Planning and Management

Implementation of IPM in agrotourism development should consider agrotourism characteristic itself. Agrotourism activity is a kind of service industry categorized as complementary product, therefore the agrotourism products are a complement for another product. In other hand, agrotourism activities caused other industries that provide additional income as a procession of agrotourism industry itself (Arifin, 2001). Furthermore, agrotourism activities caused other industries that provide additional income as a procession of agrotourism industry itself. This statement is also supported by Wardani (1997) stated that agrotourism industry is one of the tourism chain tour package, the shape of services that are complementary with other industry groups are included in the tourism industry such as hotels / inns, travel agencies, restaurants, transportation and others.

Some opinions are still considered agrotourism as agro-product or agro-industry side business, but in fact agrotourism can be an important pillar in agro-economy sector growth. Agrotourism development prospects in the watersheds of the Upper-Middle Ciliwung can be seen from three aspects, i.e. (modified from Alikodra, 1989):

1. Potential of agrotourism object, because the Upper-Middle Ciliwung Watershed has abundant agricultural resources.
2. Market potential, because the agrotourism role is to increase the diversity of object and duration of visits (in terms of supply) and affect the increased interest in traveling with a growing number offer agrotourism objects (in terms of demand).
3. Conditions and development of support facilities for development of agro tourism is also determined by several aspects such as transportation, telecommunications, accommodation, agrotourism area access and security guarantees.

There are development principles that can be applied and should be able to protect resources and natural wealth, cultural values and local history. Developments of agrotourism area is not solely for economic purposes, but still have the protection and preservation of the corridor assets that become the main area of agrotourism commodities (Kaswanto, 2007). Thus, the sustainable growth will be exist, accords, beautiful and comfortable as a rewarding scheme for environmental services receivable both by PEK and LEK.

Recommendation for Rewarding of Environmental Services

Two recommendations proposed are based on two factors, i.e. physical and institutional. Physical factors applied to the acceleration of agro-industry growth, while institutional factors carried out with the formulation of government policy programs. The LEK role to keep the surrounding environment, both in the conservation, utilization and management is must be implemented by working in together with MEK as an appreciation to communities around. The PEK role to enforce the rules in RTRW listed is should be implemented strictly and continuously.

Recomendation I: Accelerate of Agroindustry Growth

The increasing of unit and area of industry-based agriculture or agroindustry would also increase the agrotourism activities. Several agro-industries that became agrotourism area have successfully increase economy level of surrounding community. While the owner of agroindustry companies would have higher and multiply profit probability, even could be done by a cross-subsidies plan when one of the sectors was declining. Recommendation scheme in our report is shown that the accelerate agroindustry growth gave a positive effect for agrotourism development. At this level, the environmental services scheme for upper stream communities could be conducted and provided by the expenses that came from middle-down stream communities during agrotourism activities. These correlation have been proven by Dahliani (2005) in agrotourism area at Gunung Mas Tea Plantation (Kebun Teh Gunung Mas), which is describe that the best effort in developing agrotourism activities in agroindustry area is by developed a cross-subsidies program from agrotourism financial to agro-industry, and vice versa.

Therefore the arrangement of RTRW for upperstream watershed area designation should be mainly for activities: (1) crops agriculture, (2) tourism, and (3) plantation, while for middle stream watershed area should be mainly for activities: (1) industry, (2) tourism, (3) trading and service. Thus the flow of production and marketing will occur in a tolerable cycle due to the peak visitation on certain days. This flow and chain relationship would be one of recommended way for rewarding the upper stream communities because they have conserved water as natural resources.

Recommedation II: Arrangement of Government Policies and Programs

There are some government policy arrangements that could be done i.e. (1) increasing visitor satisfaction (tourists), (2) natural resources conservation, (3) active participation of local communities, (4) rewarding of compensation for community in the upperstream area, (5) participation of investor, (6) law enforcement in RTRW implementation. Periodically conducted a public hearing with local community and followed up with a small workshop intended to construct an achievement as a result and evaluation or program monitoring from policies that have been arranged.

Government should be arrange some programs that should to be done by revitalize the information systems of agrotourism area, include: (1) to expand and improve the information distribution of agrotourism destination area, (2) to design packages that include routes of agrotourism area of interest, (3) to prepare human resources as a professional agrotourism guide, and (4) to encourage communities to manage their agrotourism activities that they provided.

RHA Method Advantages

The RHA approach would be very useful to study several watersheds problem in Indonesia, and it is also could be participated in analyse of water supply and demand for public communities in watershed area as an instruments for upperstream communities to appreciate downstream communities, as well as shown by RUPES mechanism.
The experiences that came out by using RHA methods occur in several aspects:

1. Saving times: This six-months analysis is very time-saving compare to another hydrological approach analysis.
2. Low budgets: The RHA approach could be conducted with the minimum budget provided. The ecological borders as well as watershed boundaries usually have a large coverage area and it consequence to a huge research budget, but the RHA could minimize and reduce unnecessary expenses.
3. Stabile efforts: Availability of manual and support from experienced researcher make the RHA approach could be a promising method with a low risk to be failed.
4. Applicable results: The results are not only a text-book report but also an implementation acts. They are applicable according site specific condition that every site has unique characteristics.
5. Reliable recommendations: Some recommendations occurred during the RHA approach are very reliable and receivable among PEK and LEK.

 

References

Alikodra, H.S. 1989. Prospek dan kendala pengembangan wisata agro di Indonesia. Seminar Wisata Agro. Institut Pertanian Bogor. Bogor.

Arifin, H.S. 2001. Peran Arsitek Lanskap dalam perencanaan dan pengembangan wisata agro di Indonesia. Bahan Rujukan Rapat Kerja Nasional Wisata Agro 2001: Koordinasi Peningkatan Ketahanan Pangan. Jakarta.

Dahliani, L. 2005. Analisis pencapaian produktivitas pucuk dampak dari agrowisata di Kebun Teh Gunung Mas, Bogor PTPN VIII Jawa Barat [tesis]. Program Pascasarjana, Institut Pertanian Bogor. Bogor.

Jeanes, K., M. van Noordwijk, L. Joshi, A. Widayati, Farida, B. Leimona. 2006. Rapid Hydrological Appraisal in the Context of Environmental Services. World Agroforestry Center. ICRAF. Bogor.

Kaswanto. 2007. Evaluasi Kesesuaian Lahan untuk Kawasan Agrowisata yang Berwawasan Lingkungan di Daerah Aliran Sungai (DAS) Ciliwung. Institut Pertanian Bogor. Bogor.

Lancaster RA. 1990. Recreation, park, and open space standards and guidelines. Ashburn, VA: National Recreation and Park Association

van Noorwdwijk, M., J.G. Poulsen, P.J. Ericksen. 2004. Filters, Flows and Fallacies: Quantifying Off-site Effect of Land Use Change. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 104:1934.

Wardani, RT. 1997. Strategi pengembangan agrowisata dalam menunjang kegiatan agribisnis PT. Indidaya Agrolestari, Parung, Bogor [tesis]. Magister Manajemen Agribisnis. Institut Pertanian Bogor. Bogor.

 

Figure 1. Land Use Map from Landsat Image

Table 1. The RHA Implementation Process in Upper-Middle Ciliwung Watershed

back to top ▲ Carbon Stock Measurement in Coffee and Cacao Plantation of Indonesian Coffee and Cacao Research Institute (ICCRI) and several smallholder coffee plantations in East Java, Indonesia using RaCSA Method
By Indonesian Coffee and Cacao Research Institute (ICCRI)

Coffee and cacao are examples of commercial plants that need tree cover for optimal growth. Therefore, the plantations have double potencies in growing economically valuable products as well as absorbing carbon. The C-stock and economic analysis will be useful to predict which management approach has more long-term economic and ecological benefits. Observations to measure the carbon stocks and economic value of coffee and cacao plantations have been carried out in Kaliwining Experimental Station in Jember District, Sumberasin Experimental Station, in Malang District, and Andungsari Experimental Station in Bondowoso District, Sumberbaru and Silo sub-District, Jember District, Gandusari and Suruh sub-District in Trenggalek District by the Indonesian Coffee and Cacao Research Institute (ICCRI) in 2008.

As the result of carbon measurement, the C stock in Robusta plantation was higher than in Arabica coffee plantation. The Robusta coffee plantation belong to ICCRI can keep 42 Mg/ha, while in the small holder Robusta plantation was 30 Mg/ ha. Both Robusta plantations can keep C-stock higher than Arabica plantation which only kept 25 Mg/ ha. The C-Stock of Cocoa plantation was higher than in Coffee plantation. However, the experimental design should consider the shading and plantation age to get a clear few that these factors can influent the C-Stock.

In smallholder plantations with agroforestry patterns, cocoa and coffee may contribute higher incomes to the households. Coffee smallholding has contributed 59.38% of farmers’ total income, while other income may come from other agroforestry products. Cocoa smallholding has provided about 65.54% of the income. In experimental plantations, the production cost is very high and at the same time the product of the main trees (coffee or cocoa) is also high. Therefore, it is difficult to compare the economic value between big plantations and smallholdings. However, on the ecological perspective, it is recommended to plant the coffee and cocoa in agroforestry systems with other vegetation to store more Carbon in the plot.
 

back to top ▲ Coffee Ulu Agroforest of Paninggahan, Junjung Sirih sub-District, Solok District, West Sumatra, Indonesia
By Wali Nagari Paninggahan, Indonesian Coffee and Cocoa Research Institute (ICCRI) and RUPES Singkarak

The planning area for Robusta Organic Coffee is in the protected forest enclave  of Paninggahan, West Sumatra. It is known as ‘Kopi Ulu’, because it is in the upstream (Hulu) of Batang Hari Paninggahan River, 800-900 m above sea level.

The coffee ulu agroforest covers 10,250ha in the Bukit Barisan area, southeast of Singgalang Mountain. Other land uses in Paninggahan comprise forest (3,841ha), agriculture (paddy field) (606ha), smallholder plantations (1,868ha), tambak (for fish) (361ha), and unused land (1,247.5ha). The coffee ulu agroforest is managed traditionally by farmers under the shade of big trees in protected forest without any chemical fertilisers and pesticides.

In Coffee Ulu Plantation of Paninggahan, the “Wali Nagari Paninggahan” and RUPES Singkarak will implement Rapid Agro-Biodiversity Appraisal (RABA) and Rapid Market Appraisal (RMA) in the area to see the value from the biodiversity aspect and the market of Coffee Ulu Plantation. Before helding RABA and RMA, a study on Improving Robusta Organic Coffee for Revitalization of “Kopi Ulu” Plantation was held by Indonesian Coffee and Cocoa Research Institute (ICCRI).

 

Study on Improving Robusta Organic Coffee for Revitalisation of “Kopi Ulu” Plantation
By John Bako Baon and Aris Wibawa, Indonesian Coffee and Cocoa Research Institute (ICCRI)

To anticipate the dynamic market opportunities arising from increasing demand for organic coffee, communities and “Wali Nagari Paninggahan” (the stakeholder in Nagari Paninggahan), through ICRAF in RUPES and the TUL-SEA Project, have requested assistance from the Indonesian Coffee and Cocoa Research Institute (ICCRI) to study the possibility of improving robusta organic coffee in Nagari Paninggahan, Solok District.

The area is classified as marginally suitable for robusta coffee, with the steep slope being the main limiting factor. Therefore, efforts should be directed to improving the land’s condition to support optimum production.

Soils in the steep slope area can be improved by establishing contour terraces based to prevent landslides and conserve soil fertility and water. Soil-chemical improvement can be done by fertilising using natural fertilisers such as manure, compost from coffee bean skins and coffee leaves, or pruning materials.

Robusta coffees, which are developed by farmers, are mostly not clonal plants and little maintenance is undertaken, especially pruning. Therefore, yields are very low. Farmers are encouraged to improve yields by grafting budwood from selected clonal varieties and planting these at intervals. Limited good planting materials selection criteria has been informed to the farmers during the study.

The usual shade trees are dadap, durian, cengkeh, pisang, gamal and other forestry trees. Shade trees in good condition are important in practising organic coffee plantation.

Generally, coffee ulu farmers have implemented organic principles by avoiding chemical pesticides or fertilisers. Unfortunately, some farmers are still planting intercrops such as onions and chili, which are maintained intensively using pesticides that can contaminate the organic coffee. Good communication and extension can improve the farmer’s understanding on this issue.

After solving cultivation problems, an inspection and certification program can be realised by preparing organic coffee improvement data, a farmer members’ list and approval, a detailed village map and other documents and choosing an exporter/processor as partner.

Although demand for organic products, including coffee, has increased lately, the demand for robusta coffee is relatively low compared with Arabic coffee. The Arabic coffee price in international markets is much higher than robusta. Therefore, the marginal profit and additional value of organic robusta coffee is not as high as Arabic coffee. It is a challenge for processor/exporter/importer partners to develop an international market for organic robusta coffee that can return good prices for the Paninggahan product.

Identification of Agro-Biodiversity and its Function
By Wali Nagari Paninggahan

Each organism has specific roles in environmental functions. These functions are directly or indirectly useful for human beings, such as for food, natural pesticides, medicines andfertilisers. Therefore, agro-biodiversity conservation is very important, from genetic diversity right up to species diversity on an ecosystem scale. The greatest biodiversity provides the building blocks for developing new crop varieties, and when agrobiodiversity is diminished or destroyed, the whole ecosystem is affected.

Rapid Agro-Biodiversity Appraisal (RABA) is used to assist communities to value and understand the function of the agro-biodiversity for the community itself and also for the environment. RABA in Coffee Ulu Plantation Paninggahan, Junjung Sirih sub-District, Solok District, West Sumatra, will be suitable to evaluate the value of agro-biodiversity in the area as the plantation is traditionally managed nearby the protected forest. It can be also used to negotiate with the managers of the Coffee Ulu Revitalisation Program to understand biodiversity conservation trade-offs.

back to top ▲ RaCSA in Hutan Adat, Guguk Village, Sungai Manau sub-District, Merangin District, Jambi Province, Indonesia
By KKI-WARSI

Guguk village is located in Kabupaten Merangin, Jambi Province. In this area, communities are allowed to manage 690 hectare of remnant forest in Bukit Tapanggang as “hutan adat” through “Keputusan Bupati Nomor 287 Tahun 2003” since 1999 with facilitation by WARSI. Hutan Adat Guguk village has an important beneficiary to the villager through providing additional income such as natural honey and fish.

Dense vegetation cover in the most of hutan adat Guguk village has high potential as a carbon sink. Therefore, preserving the area is an important issue ecologically and economically. Involving local communities with incentive as a reward would be attractive for whom to provide environmental services. Through this mechanism, conserving hutan adat Guguk will be interesting for local communities, then improving ecology and economy aspect will meet the target. In 2008, KKI WARSI, a local NGO in Jambi conducted carbon measurement study (using RaCSA) in the area to estimate C-Stock at plot and landscape levels, and to prepare collaborative planning with communities and local government to support the preserving C stock in hutan adat Guguk.

Land cover identification from citra landsat map 2006 indicates two land cover types Hutan adat Guguk Village: primary forest with high density canopy (most of the area) and medium density canopy. The plot samples were set up only in the forest with high density canopy.

Average of carbon stock in hutan adat Guguk from tree, understorey, litter and necromass components is 247 ton/ha with proportion of 24% carbon stock from small tree less than 30 cm diameter, 71% from big tree more than 30 cm diameter and 5% from litter, understorey and necromass, respectively.

Further analysing on the time-series carbon stock in Hutan Adat Guguk village using Citra Lansat could not be conducted since the study area was too narrow or only 690ha. It was recommended to conduct the more detail study on the land cover class using Spot and Radar SaT.

The Hutan Adat Manager Group (KPHA) was very supportive in the RaCSA study in the Hutan Adat Guguk Village. The team involved in the Carbon measurement and also the socialization of the Carbon issue in the communities and stakeholder in the Hutan Adat. The stakeholder of Hutan Adat Guguk Village, Merangin District, Jambi Province and the communities are committed to support the sustainability management of the Hutan Adat. The challenge for the KPHA is pressure on illegal logging and deforestation in surrounding the Hutan Adat as the capacity of KPHA is still limited.
 

back to top ▲ Konto Watershed, East Java Province
By Faculty of Agriculture, Brawijaya University

The transformation of forests into monocultural and polycultural agricultural  systems has caused a loss in forest hydrological functions, CO₂ absorbance, biodiversity and soil productivity (Van Noordwijk et al., 2002; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Researching_with_Wikipedia). Konto Watershed covers 23,701ha. Administratively, Ngantang sub-District covers 11,195ha on the western side, and Pujon sub-District cover 12,505ha on the eastern side. The population increase from 587 people/km² in 1990 to 657 people/km² in 2000 has trigger land-use changes across the watershed.

University of Brawijaya will implement two TUL-SEA tools:

1. Rapid Agro-Biodiversity Appraisal (RABA)
2. Rapid Carbon Stock Appraisal (RaCSA)

 

Can Coffee-Based Agroforestry System Conserve Biodiversity? Case study from Kali Konto sub-watershed, Malang, Indonesia
Kurniatun Hairiah, Fitri Khusyu Aini, Syahrul Kurniawan, Gede Swibawa and Nina Dwi Lestari

 

The natural forest area in Kali Konto sub-watershed (Malang regency, East Java) continued to decline while the population density increased from 587 to 657 persons per km² in 1990 and 2000, respectively. Analysis of land use change based on maps of 1990 and 2005 showed that a 2.2% per year loss (or 161.2 ha/year) of remaining natural forest area, a 5.1% of ‘belukar’ or bush fallow (or 36.4 ha/year), a 7.1 % tree plantations (or 42.4 ha) and a 0.8% of agroforestry (42.4 ha/year). The total area of annual crop on the other hand, showed an increased a 10% per year (or 41.8 ha per year). The common land cover types were annual crops mostly monoculture vegetable (cabbages or carrots), coffee-based agroforestry systems, tree plantations (Ind: ‘Hutan Tanaman Industri’) such as pine (Pinus mercusii), mahogany (Swietenia mahogany) and ‘damar’ (Agatis philippensis) which potentially store a large amount of carbon for long periods of time.


Figure 1. Land cover change (A) and percentage changes of land cover (B) in Kali Konto sub-watershed based on analysis of land use maps of 1990 and 2005 (Kurniawan et al., 2010)

Compared to natural forest, however, biodiversity is reduced and forest functions in the broader ecosystem are modified. In this area, data on biodiversity loss and perceived functions of flora and fauna for local livelihoods are very limited, therefore RABA (Rapid Agro-biodiversity Appraisal) as a diagnostic tool to appraise perceptions of different stakeholders (related to potential benefits of agro-biodiversity conservation) and to assess the feasibility of a PES mechanism, it can’t be implemented in this area. However, this activity was done based on the RABA approach.

An assessment of agro-biodiversity was made in the coffee agroforestry area between January and July 2009 in the upstream parts of the Kali Konto sub-watershed, covering a range of land use system (LUS) in Ngantang and Pujon district. This assessment was done mainly based on fauna functional approach of agro-biodiversity on crop production which related to soil fertility (physical property), pest control (nematode), and water conservation. Another function of agro-biodiversity related to pollination and seed distribution were not cover in this study.

The assessment was done in 3 steps. Step 1, compilation of data from previous research relating to land cover change, climate, landscape history, diversity of tree and earthworm in various agricultural systems. Step 2, collecting information on the importance value of trees, animals and agroforestry systems based on PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal) methods, in-depth farmer interviews and ground checks. Step 3, direct field measurement was done in the study area to assess diversity of nematodes and termites in five land use systems i.e: natural forest, bamboo forest, coffee-based mixed agroforestry systems, shaded coffee with Gliricidia, and pine plantation with nappier grass as understory. Belowground biodiversity was assessed according to a technique developed by CSM-BGBD (Conservation and Sustainable Management of Belowground Biodiversity).

Based on farmer perspectives agroforestry provides agricultural products without declining soil fertility, therefore it reduces fertilizer and other chemical use compare to monoculture systems. In the area with relatively more fertile soil (in Pujon District) farmers have options to cultivate their farms intensively with vegetables and agroforestry is less interesting. Vegetable production provides short-term returns with good access to the market, while trees have long production cycles. But where the soil is less fertile (as in Ngantang district), agroforestry is considered easier and involve lower cost than growing annual crops. In that area, coffee-based agroforestry is common and 3 fruit trees species durian, avocado, and banana are popular to be used as shade trees for coffee. Timber trees are also commonly planted as saving for the future.

Agroforestry systems are home for many plant and animal species, but fauna and flora which is sensitive to fragmentation will not survive. In this area farmers identified 75 animal species in coffee-based agroforestry systems (aboveground and belowground species), including mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, amphibians and soil invertebrates. A number of animal species in the Kali Konto sub-watershed is considered endangered and legally protected (CITES, PP No. 7 and UU No. 5 1990), including two types of eagle (elang ular bido, Spilornis cheela and ‘badol’ or ‘bondol’/elang Jawa, Spizaetus bartelsi)), hornbill (rangkong, Aceros undulatus), flying fox (kalong, Pteropus giganteus), deer (‘kijang jawa’, Cervus unicolor), two monkey species (lutung, Trachypithecus auratus) and macac (‘kera ekor panjang’ Macaca fascicularis), a wild cat (macan rembah, Felis bengalensis) and a squirrel species (tupai besar/jelarang, Ratufa bicolor). Five reasons are indicated by farmers why the population density of those animals decline rapidly: (1) food limitation, (2) increased application of insecticides and herbicides, (3) increased hunting activity, (4) market demand for the products and (5) habitat fragmentation.

Coffee-based agroforestry systems can partially maintain belowground biodiversity such as earthworms, termites and nematodes, compared to natural forest. Farmers in Kali Konto sub-watershed stated that earthworms play an important role in agroforestry system as ’decomposer’ and that they are an indicator of fertile soil. However, the role of earthworms in soil porosity was invisible and not represented in farmer knowledge. Twelve species of earthworms from 3 families (Megascolicidae, Lumbricidae and Moniligastridae) were found in various land use systems. Forest conversion to agricultural land led to the loss of two earthworms decomposer species i.e. Polypheretima elongate and Metaphire californica. None of the earthworm species found in the natural forest was found in bamboo forest. In bamboo forest only two (soil burrowing) species were found (Pheretima minima and Eiseniella tetraeda f.typica (savigny)). Similar as found in the earlier study in Lampung (Sumatera) the exotic soil burrowing species Pontoscolex corethrurus is the common species found in all land use systems, even in the natural forest indicating high human intervention in the forest. Further data analysis collected from Lampung and Java (Kali Konto sub-watershed) suggested that good soil porosity and higher soil infiltration in coffee-based agroforestry system was correlated to bigger size of earthworms as shown by ratio of population density over biomass of earthworms (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Effect of size of earthworm Pontoscolex (ratio Biomass:Population density) on soil porosity in various land use systems in Lampung (Sumatra) and Java (Kali Konto)

Beside earthworms, the farmers also identified other soil fauna such as termites, ants and mole crickets as common in their land. Termites were considered as pest because they often destroy plant roots systems and wooden houses. Results of detail measurement showed that termite diversity in Kali Konto sub-watershed was low with a total 19 species only, where 7 species was classified as clay eating termite (beneficial types) and 12 species was classified as wood eating termite (potentially as pest). Two species most commonly found were Odontotermes grandiceps (wood eating, potentially can be pest) and Subulioiditermes emersoni (clay eating). The highest termite diversity was found in bamboo plantation which has no application of fertilizer or insecticide. The high diversity of clay eating termite and wood eating termites were closely correlated to soil water content and thickness of litter layer. Land use change in Kali Konto sub-watershed was clearly followed by the change of termite diversity, but its impact on its ecological function has not fully understood yet; further studies are still needed to improve the strategy of land management for healthy agriculture.

The third group of biota observed was nematodes which are unknown to farmers because they are not visible without microscope. Farmers are not aware of the potential of nematodes to become serious pests in their garden, with banana and napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) as primary hosts. Eight genera of nematode with pest potential were identified in the Kali Konto sub-Watershed i.e. Xiphinema, Longidorus, Criconemella, Tylenchus, Helicotylenchus, Radopholus, Pratylenchus, Ditylenchus, and Hoplolaimus. Overall, Helicotylenchus was the most important pest with highest population abundance in all land-use systems, except in disturbed forest and bamboo forest. In tree-based system the ratio of parasitic nematodes (PN) relative to free-living nematodes (FN) was higher than in disturbed forest; coffee shaded with Gliricidia, however, had the lowest PN:FN ratio (about 51%). The highest PN:FN ratio was in the napier grass monoculture systems which was dominated by parasitic nematodes (about 81%).

Improving aboveground biodiversity in complex agroforestry systems is generally considered a key factor in maintaining belowground diversity and optimizing its ecosystem function, but specific relations may be more complex. Gliricidia sepium, the most common N₂ fixing companion tree of coffee is toxic to earthworms as well as plant parasitic nematodes, while banana stimulates the parasitic nematodes but provides direct yield to the farmer. Under controlled condition, application Gliricidia prunnings more than 7 Mg ha^-1 increased earthworm mortality up to nearly 100%, but with a low dosage of 2 Mg ha^-1 application there was no any effect at all. In general, the mortality of earthworm was starting at 7 days after application of 4 Mg ha-1 Gliricidia prunnings. Mixing Gliricidia with coffee prunings reduced the negative effect of Gliricidia.

 

Potential stakeholder for reward mechanisms

In the Kali Konto sub-watershed three stakeholder groups relate to biodiversity conservation was identified i.e. farmers, Perum Jasa Tirta, government. Government consists of regional government, district and village government, the state forest company (PERHUTANI) and the Management of the protected forest (Tahura R. Soerjo). Appreciation of biodiversity varied between these stakeholders and we did not find evidence of integrated natural resource management, other than the only partially successful protection of remaining forest. Appreciation for biodiversity within the agricultural landscapes is too low to consider specific reward systems for environmental service maintenance. Figure 3 summarizes the coffee-based agroforestry case. The role of soil fauna in maintaining infiltration rates into the soil is only indirectly acknowledged as part of watershed management.

Figure 3. Summary of coffee based agroforestry system and its attribute for biodiversity conservation

 

Reflection on the Methodology

The RABA tools can’t be implemented in Kalikonto sub-watershed which mostly covered by coffee- based agroforestry system and intensive agriculture system (vegetables). RABA was developed based on situation in Jambi which is more focus on the role of jungle rubber on forest biodiversity conservation. In Kalikonto, our approach was more on functional based of belowground biodiversity (maintaining soil porosity, nutrient availability and pest control) which more relevant for (low-input) agriculture system. Therefore, a new diagnostic tool based on functional of soil fauna should be developed.

References

Aini FK, Kurniawan S, Wibawa G and Hairiah K. 2010. Studi Biodiversitas: Apakah Agroforestri Mampu Mengkonservasi Keanekaragaman Hayati di DAS KONTO? RABA (Rapid Agro-Biodiversity Appraisal). Working paper no 119:158 p.

 

Kurniawan S, Prayogo C, Widianto , Zulkarnain MT, Lestari ND, Aini FK and Hairiah K. 2010. Estimasi Karbon Tersimpan di Lahan-lahan Pertanian di DAS Konto, Jawa Timur. RACSA (Rapid Carbon Stock Appraisal). Working Paper no 120:60 p.

 

 

Estimation of Carbon Stock Changes in Kalikonto Watershed, Malang, East Java, Indonesia using Rapid Carbon Stock Appraisal (RaCSA)
Kurniatun Hairiah¹, Syahrul Kurniawan¹, Fitri Khusyu Aini¹, Nina Dwi Lestari¹, Iva Dwi Lestari¹, Widianto¹, Thoha Zulkarnaen^2
1 University of Brawijaya, Faculty of Agriculture, Malang, Indonesia; ² World Agroforestry Centre, ICRAF S.E. Asia, Bogor, Indonesia

Summary

The impacts of a change in land use from natural forest to tree-based agricultural system on net sequestration of CO₂, or release to the atmosphere of CO₂, can be rapidly estimated by measuring the change of carbon (C) stocks for a period of time using RACSA (Rapid Carbon Stock Appraisal). Aim of this study was to assess the changes of aboveground C stock at landscape level after forest conversion to various types of land use systems. Land cover change analysis was conducted on landsat images using post classification comparison methods where information of changes is derived from land cover maps of the Kalikonto sub-watershed (Malang, East Java, Indonesia) of 1990 and 2005. The data showed that within 15 years (period 1990- 2005), area of natural forest decreased 33% from 7269.93 ha in 1990 to 4852.26 ha in 2005; annual forest conversion rate was about 2.2% (Figure 1). On the other hand, total area of annual crop area and of settlements increased by 45% and 18%, respectively; while area of tree plantation and agroforestry were reduced about 10%.

Figure 1. Land cover changes in Kalikonto sub-watershed based on analysis of land cover maps 1990 and 2005

Measurements of aboveground C stock at plot level were made in June –December 2008 in up-stream parts of the Kalikonto sub-watershed covering a range of land use system (LUS). The eight LUS most commonly found in the study area were natural forest, bamboo forest, 3 types of plantation i.e. (Pinus mercusii), mahogany (Swietenia mahogany) and ‘damar’ (Agatis philippensis); multistrata shaded coffee with fruit and timber trees, as well as nitrogen-fixing shade trees (mostly Gliricidia sepium); single shade coffee (shade tree Gliricidia); annual cropping systems (vegetable and food crops). The natural forest in Kalikonto area has been severely disturbed shown by a low total C stock of about 161 Mg ha^-1. The total C stock in coffee-based agroforestry systems was lower, ranged from 99 to 111 Mg C ha^-1 (Figure 2 and Table 1). While for tree plantations (pinus, mahogany, and damar mostly aged 25-40 years) the C stock was ranging from 159 to 198 Mg C ha^-1 (Table 1).

Figure 2. Total C stock of different componens of various land use tipes i.e. degraded natural forest, coffee-based Agroforestry (Multistrata and simple agroforestry ), plantation (pinus, agathis, mahogany, clove and bamboo), napier grass and annual crops mainly vegetable in Kalikonto sub-watershed.

The time-averaged C stock was calculated to reflect the dynamics of C that is present in a certain land use systems over its life span, it is depends on rate of C accumulation, the minimum and maximum of C stored by the systems, and the time required to reach the maximum value and the rotation time. The time averaged C stock of tree plantations (pinus, mahogany, and damar mostly aged 25-40 years) was estimated to be 139 Mg C ha^-1 (Table 1), agroforestry was to be 111 Mg ha^-1, while annual crops was only 1.5 Mg ha^-1. The soil in Kalikonto (mostly Andisol and Inceptisol) contribute C stock about 40 – 70 % of total C stock of each land use, which is higher than earlier C stock soil data of from Ultisol (Sumatra) around 10-20% only.

Estimation the changes of C stock at landscape level

The geographic distribution of forest conversion and thus C stock reduction was mainly occurred in the area of high forest conversion in up-north of Pujon district covering 5 villages i.e. Pandesari, Wiyurejo, Madiredo, Tawangsari and Ngabab village (Figure 3). While in the southern part includes 3 vilages from Pujon district i.e. Pujon, Sukomulyo, and Bendosari, and 3 villages in Ngantang District i.e. Purworejo, Sidodadi, and Banjarejo.

Table 1. Carbon stock of various components of different land use types in Kalikonto sub-watershed

Land cover	LUS	Plant density per ha	Above ground Biomass	Estimated Root Biomass	Under-storey	Necro-mass	Soil  0-30 cm	Total C stock	Max. Age,	Time Avg. C Stock,
		-------------------------------- Mg ha-1------------------------------							year	Mg ha-1
Forest	Degraded Forest	2248	38.4	9.60	0.15	2.15	111	161	50	161
Agroforestry	AF_Multi-strata	3970	42.1	10.5	0.14	1.29	69	123	30	111
	AF_Simple	4018	21.4	5.3	0.91	2.33	69	99	30
Plantation	Pinus	795	82.6	20.7	1.22	1.59	77	183	30	144
	Agathis		87.5	21.9	2.67	1.34	77	190	40	146
	Mahogany	963	95.2	23.8	0.69	1.54	77	198	50	212
	Clove		47.3	11.8	1.53	4.15	77	142	35	70
	Bamboo	3188	63.9	16.0	0.40	2.20	77	159	15	121
Grassland	Napier grass, 4 months	-	15.0	3.7	4.41	1.02	76	100	0.25	11
	Napier grass, 1 month	-	0.9	0.2	0.21	0.53	76	78
Annual crop	Vegetables	-	1.8	0.4	0.68	0.55	76	79	0.25	1.5
Pennisetum purpureum (Rumput Gajah=napier grass)

Extrapolation of C stock at plot level to watershed level were done by multiplying the area of each land cover with its time-averaged aboveground C stock (Table 2). Within 15 years, C lost for the whole watershed (23810 ha) was estimated to be 25,924 Mg yr^-1 or equivalent to a yearly C loss of 1.48 Mg ha^-1. Carbon lost from natural forest was about 1.09 Mg ha^-1 yr^-1, tree plantations lost 0.25 Mg ha^-1 yr^-1. Carbon lost from coffee-based agroforestry systems was relatively small, about 0.05 Mg ha^-1 yr^-1. Increasing the area of annual crops in 2005 lead to a small gaining of C stock in the landscape was about 0.03 Mg ha^-1 yr^-1 but the C lost from the landscape exceeded this gain. Planting more trees (damar, pinus, mahogany) in the landscape through the Reforestation Program of the Forest Estate (PERHUTANI ) in the 1990-2005 period was not able to reduced the C lost from the landscape, planting more trees in the landscape through agroforestry and plantation may compensate the lost of C through forest conversion.

Figure 3. Distribution of carbon density in Kalikonto sub-watershed in 1990 and 2005
 

Reflection on the methodology

The measurement of C stock changes using RaCSA technique is relatively easy to be implemented in Kalikonto sub-watershed, because this technique is simple and the availability of data related to soil, tree biomass and land use maps of the area is relatively complete. However, we have some challenging in the field are:

1. Translating the C stock from plot to landscape level via time-averaged C stock was still arbitrary due to low variation of tree age class in the landscape e.g. clove plantation has only one age class.
2. Estimation of wood density of each tree species in the forest due to knowledge on tree taxonomy was limited.
3. Estimation of liana biomass in the forest due to a specific allometric equation for liana has not available yet in the area.
4. Limited sources of data. It was very difficult to find cloud-free Landsat imagery.

 

References

Kurniawan S, Prayogo C, Widianto , Zulkarnain MT, Lestari ND, Aini FK and Hairiah K. 2010. Estimasi Karbon Tersimpan di Lahan-lahan Pertanian di DAS Konto, Jawa Timur. RACSA (Rapid Carbon Stock Appraisal). . Working Paper no 120:60 p.

 

back to top ▲ Improvement Market Strategy for Jernang in Lamban Sigatal Village, Sarolangun District, Jambi Province, Indonesia
By Perkumpulan Gita Buana

One of the dry land forests left in Jambi Province is the Bukit Bahar – Tajau Pecah area located in the south, on the boundary of South Sumatra Province. The area is administratively located in Batanghari and Sarolangun District. This 89,000ha forest is stated as Production Forest and Limited Production Forest under Logging Concession (HPH = Hak Pengelolaan Hutan) of Asialog company, Oilpalm Plantation of Asiatic Persada company, and Industrial Plants Forest of Wanakasita Nusantara company. Beside the high value of agro-biodiversity, the area is home to about 233 bird species and some big mammals such as sumatran tigers (Panthera tigris sumatrae), honey bears (Helarctos malayanus) and primates.

Eleven villages surround the forest block of Bukit Bahar – Tajau Pecah. Around 12,000 people are estimated to live in the area. These villages mostly house Batin IX origin ethnics, with rubber farming the main activity. Besides farming for paddy rice and rubber, some people are still semi-nomadic, living in the forest by taking products such as honey, jernang and gaharu. Based on social data according to the National Family Planning Board (BKKBN = Badan Koordinasi Keluarga Berencana Nasional), 57 per cent of communities in Bukit Bahar – Tajau Pecah are classified as poor (28 per cent of pra-wealth class and 29 per cent wealth class I).

People living in Lamban Sigatal Village in the forest buffer zone can take timber and non-timer products from the forest. Jernang is one commodity that can directly increase household income.

Gita Buana is a local non-government organisation that works to empower the community in politics, law, economics, social improvements and culture through community and research development. Since 2002, Gita Buana has tried to support jernang improvement within the community.

Within four years, Gita Buana has:

1. Determined the Jernang area in Lamban Sigatal Village.
2. Conducted a jernang supply chain study  Jambi Province.
3. Conducted a workshop on supporting jernang improvement as one of the alternative sustainable forest uses in Sarolangun District.
4. Conducted surveys to know the structure and composition of Lamban Sigatal forest vegetation, density and distribution in hilly, watershed and flat areas, and identify the vegetation potential to support jernang improvement.
5. Mapped the location for jernang management in Lamban Sigatal Village
6. Mentored Jernang tappers in Lamban Sigatal Village.

In relation to marketing, Gita Buana’s supply chain study used a survey method especially for jernang central production. The study included jernang production characteristics and production quantity in Jambi Province, and supply chain flow, institutions involved in the chain, supply-chain margin, and the price received by farmers.

The study concluded:

1. Jernang production had potential in six Jambi Province districts, distributed across 10 sub-districts with a trading value 1.2 ton per month.
2. Farmers who manage jernang with good technical cultivation have the potential to earn Rp 56.250.000/ha/year.
3. Jambi Province has three jernang supply chains and middle-men still play an important role.
4. Jernang marketing in Jambi is still inefficient, as shown by the low price received by the producer and the high margin for marketing.
5. The length of the supply chain reduces farmers’ share of the profits.

For a specific market study in Lamban Sigatal Village, which is known as the jernang central area, Rapid Market Appraisal (RMA) will be important as a follow up to the supply chain study. This RMA study will directly involve the community. The study results are expected to be applicable for the Lamban Sigatal Village communities to improve their marketing strategy by better understanding the threat and opportunities for jernang markets. This better understanding of the market chain will help jernang tappers to improve their returns.

back to top ▲ Rapid Market Assesment Minyak Nilam di Kecamatan Pasawahan dan Jalaksana, Kabupaten Kuningan, Indonesia
By Center for Socio Economic and Policy Research on Forestry, Forest Research and Development Agency (FORDA)

In Kuningan District, West Java Province, there are 14 sub-districts known for nilam production. East Kuningan’s nilam area of 204.75ha - 180.00ha inside the state forest and 24.75 ha community owned - nilam leaf production can reach 5,449,825ton. If the average distilled percentage of Kuningan District is 2,21%, then the atsiri oil production in East Kuningan area alone will be 120,441.13ton.

Although there was no accurate data on the supply and demand for nilam oil, several informants from the University of Wijayakusuma, Kuningan who observed the nilam oil circulation, estimated that the demand for nilam oil in Kuningan District was exceeding the production. Buyers from Jakarta, Purwokerto, Ciamis and Bandung come directly to farmers and collectors to buy. The price was about Rp. 480.000/kg while the international market price is US$80 (Indonesian Atsiri Council, 13 October 2008). Few factors were suspected to affect the price, including the nilam oil quality itself.

Rapid Market Appraisal (RMA) was conducted by the Center for Socio Economic and Policy Research on Forestry, Ministry of Forestry Indonesia to improve understanding of the atsiri oil market system in Kuningan District and provide deeper information on the factors affecting the price gaps given the high demand-supply ratio. The study used an exploration strategy to get the information required. The selected locations were in the Jalaksana sub-District and Pasawahan sub-District that adjoin Gunung Ciremai National Park. They were chosen to get accurate figures on nilam cultivation in the national park’s conservation area.

The surplus/deficit of atsiri supply

There were no accurate data for atsiri supply since there was no accurate data on the area of Nilam plantation and the nilam farmers usually sold the product directly to buyers with higher price (free market mechanism). From the interview, 70-80% of nilam leaves came from the 500-600 ha of Indonesian Forest Company (PERHUTANI) plantation. Other 5% came from cultivation zone of 8.5ha participative area of Gunung Ceremai National Park (TNGC).

According to Trade and Industry Agency of Kuningan District 2008, the atsiri production in Kuningan was 16.2 ton/year. From the survey, the 2009 production was more than 100% higher than the 2008 production. It was estimated that the 2009 production was 3.36 ton/month or 40.32 ton/year. Unfortunately, all the production has been exported by domestic and external exporter.

The price and quality at the farm level
The price of atsiri oil in Kuningan market was still formed based on farmer, distiller, and collector, and influenced by the price in Medan, North Sumatra and Purwokerto District, Central Java since there are many atsiri oil exporters in both city.
The quality of atsiri oil is determined by the alcoholic content, density, and alcohol solubility. It was difficult to increase the quality of the atsiri oil in the area because of the lack supports/ equipments for the production process. Therefore, in Kuningan, the quality did not influence the price.

The market chain and distribution margin of nilam oil.

Figure 1. Marketing chain of atsiri oil in Kuningan, West Java

Atsiri oil price formation in Kuningan District

Rukmana (2004) divided production process of atsiri oil into three stages, there are Nilam cultivation (seedling, land preparation, planting, and maintenance), harvesting, and post-harvesting (drying, stilling and packing). Well maintenance nilam tree can be harvested every three months for about three years. The first harvesting, 11 ton nilam leaves/ ha can be harvested, and the next harvest can produce 15 ton/ha with 1 ton/ha variation. In three years, 176 ton/ha nilam leaves can be produced.
 

back to top ▲ Hydrological and Land Cover Analysis in Rinjani area, West Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia
By WWF Indonesia, Nusa Tenggara Program

West Nusa Tenggara (Mataram) has limited natural resources and is sensitive to environmental destruction. Therefore, sustainable development as a concept with integrated social, economic and environmental protection purposes is relevant in and should be the foundation of development policy in Lombok Island.

The environmental threats should make all stakeholders more aware of the need to take responsibility for conservation and good natural resource management. This requires sufficient structural capacity and initiative on the part of stakeholders, with the focus on three objectives: natural resource enhancement, poverty alleviation, and sustainable use of the environment.

This is the background of WWF Indonesia’s Nusa Tenggara Program, to conduct  research in the “Study on Hydrological and Landuse Cover Analysis of Rinjani Area, Lombok”, as the baseline for sustainable natural resource management on Lombok Island.

In collaboration with the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) Southeast Asia Program through the TUL-SEA project, WWF Indonesia used the Rapid Hydrological Appraisal (RHA) in Mataram. RHA is an analysis method of collecting information related to watersheds and changes over time in management practices. RHA has three important components: Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) as the watershed managers and the users; Public and Policy makers Ecological Knowledge (PEK); and, Modelling Ecological Knowledge (MEK). RHA can bridge all parties responsible for the area management and important environmental functions in Rinjani, Mataram.

The study was implemented using six analyses: hydrology data analysis; LEK and PEK analysis; water-flow analysis using Generic river model on River flow (GenRiver); landuse change scenario and hydrological function analysis; and, water quality analysis. The study area covered three watersheds (Dodokan, Putih and Menanga) and one sub-watershed in each watershed (Jangkok sub-watershed in Dodokan, Sidutan sub-watershed in Putih and Belimbing sub-watershed in Menanga).

Over seven years (1999-2006), about 5,714.99ha of land cover changed, not including 19,702.72ha of primary forest changed to secondary forest. Meanwhile, water flow in some rivers decreased 3.8 per cent a year on average. If this trend continues over the next decade, Lombok Island will be facing water scarcity. The problem is exacerbated by a diminishing soil capability to absorb water. It may also increase flood potential and droughts.

Water quality in Jangkok watershed also shows increasing medium to heavy contamination in downstream areas. It appears that human activities are becoming more complex, and settlement is dominating local land use. Therefore, the river has been contaminated with domestic waste from households, farms, markets and the area’s ketchup industry.

Rinjani area management is quite complex as many stakeholders are engaged, with high costs. Special attention should be given to economic, social, environmental, and institutional issues by strengthening the basic economy, promoting effective institutions (in particular those that coordinate communication among sectors), and by encouraging the active participation of multi-stakeholders (including the private sector and community). Therefore, an integrated and sustainable management concept is required, based on:

1. Effective third party roles and functions in the Rinjani area management strategy.
2. Spatial land-use planning management strategy that is sustainable through integrated planning based on all parties having the same vision.
3. Sector reformation and policy strategy that support the balance of economic growth and ecosystem protection
4. Sustainable financing strategy by all parties.
5. Multi partners/collaboration strategy for area management (based on PP 50 yr. 2007 about Regional Collaboration).

These five strategies can be conducted through the watershed management approach that takes account of natural resource characteristics, such as geographic, water use and so forth.

In sustainable development terms on small islands, WWF Indonesia Nusa Tenggara recommends:

• Island ecosystems should be the focus of land utilisation plans that are applied firmly and consistently for sustainability of natural resources.
• Natural resource management (forest, land, water, minerals, coastal, and marine) in Lombok should utilise an island ecosystem-based approach which combines socio-economic welfare with sustainable environmental objectives.
• Improvement of institutional capacities and human resource is urgent for the sake of proper natural resource and environmental management.
• An environmental services ‘market’, which would be a transfer mechanism from environmental services buyers to sellers, should be developed and supported by all stakeholders, especially to establish mechanisms to determine ‘downstream-upstream’ responsibilities.

back to top ▲ RMA of Rubber Agroforestry Systems Products in Singkawang Village, Batanghari District, Jambi Province, Indonesia
By Aliansi Masyarakat Peduli Hutan dan Lahan Bersama (AMPHAL)

Administratively, Singkawang Village is part of Muara Bulian sub-District, Batanghari District. This village is located 84 m asl. According to statistical data in 2006, the population density is 27.18 people per km².

Land cover is dominated by rubber, but palm oil is becoming a trend through the Bakrie Sumatera Plantation Company (PT. BSP), whose oil palm plantations cover about 800ha. Meanwhile, the forest area is in the village’s northeast. On average, each community has about 3ha.

Intensively managed rubber plantations cover about half the total area, with the remainder being smallholder rubber plantations. Smallholder plantations are managed as agroforestry systems, as they include other economic trees such as petai, duku, durian, nira and Jengkol, and also some timber species such as Jelutung, meranti, gaharu and bulian. However, trees planted from seedlings in the smallholder plantations are of a lower quality, and therefore, markets are limited and the income is relatively low (AMPHAL, 2007).

The situation encouraged the Alliance of Communities who Care for the Forest and Land (AMPHAL = Aliansi Masyarakat Peduli Hutan dan Lahan Bersama) and the European Commission (EC) - Indonesia FLEGT (Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade) Support Project to facilitate a Rubber Nurseries Bank for the village to provide good planting stock in Singkawang Village, so that the community can improve the rubber quality and their incomes.

The farmers’ low income is also a function of their weak position in the increasingly monopolistic rubber market in local and national level. This situation is getting worse with a longer chain of intermediaries locally called touke, which means farmers do not have a significant or dominant role in price setting.

Some researchers have recommended shortening the links of smallholder rubber distribution in the market, but so far, it is not known how much this could  contribute to rubber prices at farm level. In other words, which link in the chain should be cut?  The benefit margin in each link should be also linked to the social capital factor, so that efforts to shorten market links don’t result in negative social impacts.

Rapid Market Appraisal (RMA) in Singkawang Village is expected to find the pattern and chain of rubber distribution and benefit margin in each link, and to encourage farmers to increase their price bids. This study will also consider the possibilities not only for rubber, but also other commodities in the plantation. Therefore, farmers can evaluate which commodities can be produced that will bring more income, and also better evaluate the market for their commodities.

back to top ▲ PaLA for Dieng Plateau, Wonosobo District, Central Java Province, Indonesia
By Tim Kerja Penyelamatan Dieng (TKPD)

Dieng Plateau is water catchment area for Serayu River in Central Java. The topography of Dieng Plateau is hilly with more than 40% slope which according to the Guideline for Cutivation in Slope Area (Pedoman Umum Budidaya Pertanian di Lahan Pegunungan, 2006), Dieng Plateau can only planted by annual trees or grass and legume for livestock. However, this area is actually under intensive vegetable cultivation with potatoes as the main commodity. The land cover situation had caused erosion of 6 mm p.a. or about 16-20 ton/ ha/ year (Kompas, 2000) and the sedimentation in Jendral Sudirman Dam at the down-stream of Dieng Plateau has increased. Furthermore, floods and landslide followed during the rainy season, while drought happened during the dry season.

The PaLA study and PWM was conducted in Dieng Plateu of Wonosobo District which is located in three villages (Igirmranak Village, Surengede Village, and Kejajar Village) of Kejajar Sub-District with 1200-2000 m asl to participatory appraise the landscape, to enable communities in water monitoring, to identify hydrology and other watershed issues/ problems, and to facilitate further plan for Dieng Recovery Program. In long term, the study is expected to develop awareness among communities that there is relationship between hydrology and land to recover the land use based on the appropriate use.

The focus group discussion in the study locations showed that flood, decreasing of land fertility and landslide happened in rainy season. The erosion had identified as the cause of the decreasing of land fertility which furthermore decrease the agricultural productivity. The communities realized that to recover the situation, some efforts should be conducted, e.g. reforestation, socialization of water management, good agricultural practise management (rotation, trees for land boundaries, planting grass between potatoes, etc), and build conservation building along the river. However, the communities rely on the government as the responsible institution for the rehabilitation program and the rehabilitation should only conducted in PERHUTANI area since they did not want to reduce their farming productivity if they have to plant the trees in their land.

The PaLA study had asked the communities to appraise their landscape condition. Since the first time potatoes were introduced, the farmers planted the potatoes on their land which was more than 40% slope. The farmers planted the potatoes and vegetables against the contour to avoid the disease attacked. This practise can increase erosion and furthermore the decreasing of soil fertility which affected to the farming production. After discussion and conducting participatory mapping, the communities realized that the rehabilitation was also part of their responsibility.

Beside PaLA approach, the communities also trained how to monitor the water quality in the area using Participatory Water Monitoring (PWM). The practise of PWM in the three villages showed that the water quality of the river was low due to the high pesticide degree. Furthermore, from this activity, communities realized that a watershed from up to down-stream should be appraised as an integrated landscape even though passing through the administrative boundaries.

From the study, together with local stakeholders, the team also identified potential buyers in the payment for environmental services (PES) scheme, such as: Region Consumable Water Company (PDAM) Wonosobo District, Indonesian Forest Company (PERHUTANI), and other institutions that used the water from Serayu River. These institutions had conducted Corporate Services Responsibility (CSR) activities to rehabilitate the area. However, further coordination and cooperation between institutions and the local government are required to reach the organized and comprehend watershed management.
 

back to top ▲ RHA in Belu, East Nusa Tenggara Province
By ICRAF and WWF Indonesia

The study was conducted in Talau watershed, Belu, East Nusa Tenggara in cooperation with WWF Indonesia in 2007. Talau watershed is dominantly covered by grassland as its dry climate with average annual precipitation only around 1600 mm/year. The main focus of this study was in Lahurus where the water spring as the main source of water was used by the local people for household consumption and agricultural irrigation, as well as by the public water company (PDAM) for drinking water in another watershed. The main objective of this study was to assess the hydrological situation of Talau watershed and to provide information on what and where the payment for watershed services could be focused.

The main hydrological concerns in Talau are: sensitivity to climate variability and imbalance of demand and supply of water in dry periods and soil erosion. The sensitivity to climate variability and imbalance of demand and supply of water in dry periods leads to concerns over low flows and water shortage in dry season, shortfalls at intake of drinking water supply and lack of landscape scale water storage, with ‘overflow’ conditions in the second part of the rainy season, and shortfalls in the dry season. Both local community and policy makers believe that good land management could improve soil conditions and it is important to reduce further degradation of the watershed by planting trees and developing infiltration pits to reduce the hydrological problems.

Further analysis on the relationships between land use and hydrology revealed similar result as above rough water balance calculation. Converting non-productive land (defined as grassland and bush/shrubs land class) into agroforestry systems or forest does not change the annual low flow. Nevertheless, adding tree into the landscape reduced surface runoff and increased soil quick flow. This result implied that rainfall will not reach the river as soon as it occurred, increased watershed buffering capacity and consequently flash flood can be avoided. Assuming that runoff is highly correlated with soil erosion, reduction in surface runoff also suggested reduction of soil erosion and therefore improved water quality.

At this stage the evidence for a reward scheme that uses real outcomes (some measure of actual low flows) as basis for conditional rewards is relatively weak for addressing problems in water quantity, even though potential ‘buyers’ and ‘sellers’ might both believe that planting trees will solve the problem of water scarcity during the dry season. Further awareness campaign and discussions to reconcile the perspectives will be required. In particular, addressing the issue on what types of intervention will be needed and what are their plausible effects, to ensure that the subsequent negotiations on PES mechanisms will succeed. However, analysis so far suggested that rewards/payment schemes could be based on reduction of soil erosion. Further evidence on actual sediment loads of streams and field measurements of erosion is needed for verification.

However, a reliable monitoring system for rainfall, river flow and water quality is needed if the payments for watershed services want to become outcome based. Based on the current existing evidence, future development of reward mechanisms in the area could link to activities such as (i) water harvesting i.e. developing ‘embung’, a semi-constructed ponds to harvest water during wet season, (ii) soil management to avoid further soil degradation (run-off, soil erosion, fertility loss) i.e. terracing, developing infiltration pits in tree-based systems, and (iii) planting trees to increase soil cover and reducing further soil degradation. Further activities on good water management, particularly in areas (yet to be identified) where currently surface runoff exceeds 30% of rainfall, would also be of benefits as increasing infiltration (through tree planting) will have high possibility to increase low flow and recharge water springs.
 

back to top ▲ RHA in Kapuas Hulu, West Kalimantan Province
By ICRAF and WWF Indonesia

Kapuas Hulu has a very wet climate, with an average annual rainfall of 4,100 m/year with the wettest month in November or December. The dominant land cover class in Kapuas Hulu Basin is forest (90%) while only around 3% of the total area is managed by farmers (in form of agriculture and tree-based systems). The main objective of RHA study in this area that was conducted in cooperation with WWF Indonesia in 2007, was to assess the hydrological situation of Kapuas Hulu Basin and to provide information on what and where the payment for watershed services could be focused as in the upstream of Kapuas Hulu Basin that lies Batang Kerihun National Park as one of the last frontiers of natural habitat in Kalimantan.

There are three main catchments in Kapuas Hulu Basin: Sibau, Mendalam and Kapuas (Koheng). Sibau was the most intensive land management with vegetable plots, tree-systems and tembawang, while Kapuas is the least as the community gathered forest products and tembawang. Currently, the threat of the lost and fragmented forest area due to fire, logging and mining in Kapuas is being concerned by the local stakeholder (local community and policy makers), specially on the impact to watershed hydrological functions, particularly on water level and water quality (erosion, sedimentation and pollution). As boats are the main transportation for people in the area, stable and sufficient river depth is desirable.

Water quality issues in the area are related to water turbidity due to erosion and sedimentation, as well as pollution. The landscape water balance in Kapuas indicated that around 60% flows into the river, while 40% is used by the vegetation in interception and transpiration. According to the model, only 0.5 % of rainfall come as surface run-off, 16% as soil quick flow (interflow; reaching the river within 2 days after the rain) and 39% as base flow. Based on existing data and the estimated water balance through a modelling approach, the Kapuas Hulu basin is currently still able to maintain its watershed function, particularly those related to maintaining river flow.

According to scenario analysis, reducing forest cover in the area will increase surface runoff and reduce soil quick flow. Thus, if the riparian zones are not healthy, there will also be increase of sedimentation in the river. The landscape water balance analysis also showed that up to 2004, the runofff fraction in Kapuas Hulu Basin was low. However, there were already signs of degradation at smaller scale as shown in the result of scenario analysis in the Datah Dian sub-catchment. In this sub-catchment, around 3% of total rainfall becomes surface run off or amounting to 6 times the overall basin condition.

The hydrological study also looked into the effect of the changes in forest cover into other land uses (agriculture systems, bush-fallow) to the total water balance, particularly the shift from base flow into soil quick flow or surface run off. These changes will have influence on the temporal pattern of river flow at a daily basis, but not on the weekly or monthly patterns.

Future development of reward mechanisms in the area could be linked to activities that improve the (i) tree cover along river banks as well as (ii) converting non-productive land, as these areas are contributing to sedimentation in the river. The lack of existing hydrological data shows the important part of water and river monitoring activities in the overall scheme. To ensure that the hydrological condition of Kapuas Hulu basin can be maintained or improved, attention should be paid also to large logging activities as well as gold mining activities.

 

Reference
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Lusiana B, Widodo R, Mulyoutami E, Adi DK and van Noordwijk M. 2008. Assessing Hydrological Situation of Kapuas Hulu Basin, Kapuas Hulu Regency, West Kalimantan. Working Paper No. 57:67p. (available in Bahasa Indonesia version)

 

back to top ▲ RHA in Way Peusangan, Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam Province
By ICRAF and WWF Indonesia

The Krueng Peusangan Watershed was categorized as degraded area and needs high priority to improve its situation according to the Department of Public Work and Water Resource Services of Aceh Province (Departemen Pekerjaan Umum dan Dinas Sumber Daya Air, Aceh province). The Aceh Provincial Government developed a strategic planning of integrated and sustainable watershed management of the Krueng Peusangan watershed to prevent further watershed degradation. Aligned to the development of the strategic planning, WWF in collaboration with the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) SEA Regional Program conducted a comprehensive hydrology study from the perspective of multiple stakeholders using the Rapid Hydrological Appraisal (RHA) method in 2009. The objectives of the RHA were to appraise the hydrological situation from the perspective of multiple stakeholders: local ecological knowledge (LEK), public/policymakers ecological knowledge (PEK), and hydrologist/modeler ecological knowledge (MEK). Further, the recommendation from the application of RHA was to design a realistic approach in designing a reward for watershed services scheme.

The Krueng Peusangan watershed is a cross-district watershed with a lake located in its upper part and consists of 11 sub-watersheds. It has moderately high rainfall and wet seasons. The analysis of land cover change in 1990 – 2009 showed that the watershed had experienced decrease of forest and pine forest cover (about 40%) and increase of settlement, oil palm plantation and other tree cover systems such as coffee agroforest, both monoculture and complex mixed tree crops. As the consequences of tree cover decrease in the landscape for the last 20 years, the total water yield as a fraction of total rainfall increased. High total water yield especially under intensive rainfall events contributed to increasing surface flow and lead to floods, soil erosion and riverbank abrasion.

In the upper watershed, the Gayo people live along the river and surrounding the Lake Laut Tawar, while the Aceh people live in mid and downstream of the watershed. The Gayo people mostly planted upland rice, coffee, cocoa, and pinang under both monoculture and mixed crop systems. The Acehnese practiced fishing and cultivated irrigated paddy, coconut, oil palm, and mixed garden.

Based on survey, both upstream and downstream communities recognized the importance of river; however, they had different opinions of the major problem of the watershed. The upstream community mentioned decreasing river flow, low water quality and sedimentation as the problems, while the mid- and downstream community considered disaster as the main problems, such as riverbank collapse (abrasion) and flood causing economic lost to them. The locals were also familiar with tree species with high capacity to reduce erosion and simple constructions to maintain the stability of riverbank.

At the other hand, the policy makers, such as district and provincial government officers revealed that the Krueng Peusangan watershed had important economical and ecological roles. While mentioning abrasion, erosion, flooding and sedimentation as the problems they faced, they considered forest clearing and mining activities, and wild foraging as the main causes of these problems.

The study analyzed 5 scenarios to understand the impact of land use change to the key hydrological parameters of the Krueng Peusangan watershed. The scenarios vary from “business as usual” with 4 percent decrease of forest over time, mild level increment of tree cover, such as increase of complex mixed tree crop and/or pine forest, and extreme increment of tree cover with full natural forest cover except for the settlement.

From the modelling analysis, the water balance did not differ significantly under conversion of non-tree cover system to complex mixed tree crop and logged over forest to pine forest, or the combination of both (Scenario 1,2,3) because the affected area is relatively small (10-15% of the total area). Reforesting all land cover in the watershed except settlement area (scenario 5) resulted on increase in evapotransporation (50%) and decrease in river discharge (25%). Reforesting part of the watershed, such as bare-land and logged over forest and converting monoculture crop and plantation to complex mixed tree system (scenario 4) gave slightly lower water balance (evapotranspiration and river flow) trend compare to scenario 5. There is also a slight increase in soil base flow for both scenarios 4 and 5. It is imply that there is transfer of surface runoff into soil base flow. Shifts in this pathway that water takes to reach the river, from current surface flow to an increase in base flow will depend on the rate of recovery of soil physical conditions.

For the next step of research, it is recommended to follow up study on (1) the effects of coffee agroforestry and other forest derived land uses on soil physical conditions; (2) explore types of tress preferred by the communities with ecological and economical values.
This study gave basic understanding in designing rewards for environmental service schemes (RES) in the Krueng Peusangan watershed. It proved that modification of parts of the watershed to forest and/or complex mixed system can enhance water balance of the watershed. The local knowledge in this area could contribute greatly to the tree selection and solution to watershed problem, such as simple constructions to retain collapse riverbank. Therefore, recognition of such knowledge will become an important element in the RES design. Layered stakeholders and complex issues of land cover in this watershed suggest that applying a direct – supply demand – payment for environmental services might not work at the initial stage of the process. The site manager may want to build a joint investment approach in solving the problems and managing the watershed, between communities who maintain a healthy watershed (ES providers) and ones who benefit from it (ES beneficiaries). The co-investment scheme, in principle, is to have strong trust and commitment in order to gain benefits and share risks together between ES providers and ES beneficiaries.

 

Reference

Khasanah N, Mulyoutami E, Ekadinata A, Asmawan T, Tanika L, Said Z, van Noordwijk M and Leimona B. 2011. A Study of Rapid Hydrological Appraisal in the Krueng Peusangan Watershed, NAD, Sumatra. . Working Paper nr 123. DOI: 10.5716/WP10339.PDF:55 p.

 

back to top ▲ RHA in Cidanau, Banten Province
By Rekonvasi Bhumi

Cidanau watershed is geographically located in South 06^o 07’ 30” - 06^o 18’ 00” and East 105^o 49’ 00” - 106^o 04’ 00”, covered 22.620 ha. The important functions of Cidanau watershed are: as water supply/ source and as swamp conservation area (Cagar Alam Rawa Danau = CARD). So far, the water of Cidanau River is used by PT. Krakatau Tirta Industri (KTI) to provide clean water which is distributed to industries and region clean water company (PDAM). To identify the important issues of hydrology, types of landuse, and the impact of landuse change in the watershed, Rekonvasi Bhumi, a local NGO conducted a Rapid Hydrological Appraisal (RHA) in 2010-2011.

According to the local community, there was any watershed problem identified even though in 1990-1997 there were difficulties in the supply of clean water in the upstream and irrigation in the middle and downstream. The local understanding on the importance of trees in their garden has solved the difficulties above. Another problem that may be faced is flood that recently happened in December 2010. The flood was the worst during the last 30 years.

According to the policy makers, there were several problems occur in the area: conversion of swamp conservation area to paddy field, the decrease of water discharge, increased of erosion, and sedimentation. The economic problem has been the trigger for community to do the conversion (logging). The logging activity in the area may cause the decrease of water discharge, increased of erosion and sedimentation, and furthermore caused the flood. Not only swamp forest was converted, but also the forest was converted to paddy field.

The land cover analysis showed that there was increasing of paddy field and garden from the swamp forest. The chances happened in area with low density which was dominated by grass and shrub on mineral soil. The condition was easy in land clearing and management. At the other hand, the change from swamp area to agroforestry system was increased. This situation was also mentioned by the local to explain the planting of wood and fruit trees in their garden to increase the land cover and enrich the product. From this analysis, the reward payment for environmental service wasn’t captured as the replanting was conducted on the existing land use.

The RHA study should be included the modelling using GenRiver to determine the water balance. Since the limited time and resource to parameterize the model, theteam was only able to calculate the persistency of discharge flow using FlowPer model. This model is relatively easy and can be used as early watershed indicator. The model analysis showed that the watershed still provide its hydrology function as the water discharge was not fluctuated day by day. However, the trend showed that the water discharge will be decrease in the future.
 

back to top ▲ RaTA and PaLA in Sasaot Protected Forest, Mataram, West Nusa Tenggara Province
By ICRAF

ICRAF has conducted RaTA and PaLA study in Sasaot Forest, West Nusa Tenggara Province.

 

Which way forward forest management of Sesaot, Mataram, Indonesia?

Gamma Galudra

 

Background

Sesaot Forest, located in northern part of Rinjani National Park, has a size of 5950 ha. It is also a catchment area of Dodokan watershed. Administratively, this forest is located in Narmada and Lingsar sub-districts, and surrounded by 4 villages namely Sesaot, Lebah Sempage, Sedau and Batu Mekar. Based on Ministry of Agriculture Decree No. 756/Kpts/Um/1982, the status and function of Sesaot forest is protected forest. This designation is based on that this forest has an important function as irrigation for large scale agriculture and households’ water consumption in Mataram city, West Lombok and East Lombok regents.

Nevertheless, another interesting function of Sesaot forest is its ecotourism potential. In the last decade, Sesaot forest has been used by many people from West Lombok District as an ecotourism site. Some endangered species such as monkeys and birds can be found in this area. The area can offer many potential aspects such as ecotourism and biodiversity.

Based on these two facts, the Provincial Forest Agency of Nusa Tenggara Barat Dinas Kehutanan Provinsi Nusa Tenggara Barat proposes the area to be designated as Grand Forest Park (Taman Hutan Raya) Nuraksa for the width of 3155 ha. The proposal was acknowledged by the Ministry of Forestry (MoF) through its Decree No 224/KPTS-II/1999 and Decree No 598/Menhut-II/2009. However, this effort receives some resistances from the local people surrounding the forest and Regency Government of West Lombok. Conflict between two different parties cannot be avoided.

 

Why it should be Tahura? Why they resist?

Those who support the development of Tahura is the Provincial Government of Nusa Tenggara Barat, especially its Forest Agency. Because of its potential ecotourism and rich biodiversity, the provincial government sent a recommendation note No No 660/305/Bapedalda/1998 to the Ministry of Forestry to declare the area as Tahura. The recommendation was being accepted through MoF Decree No 244/1999. However, the declaration cannot be putted in practice because of legality issues. First, the Tahura designation is not being elaborated and explained in Nusa Tenggara Barat Provincial Forest Designation within the MoF Decree No 418/1999. This creates confusion whether this designation has been through the local government’s consents. Second, the Tahura Nuraksa management and control was being delegated to West Lombok Regency based on Decree No 579/DJ-V/KK/2001. The delegation decree causes uncertainty which agency actually has the authority to manage and control the Tahura Nuraksa.

Despite of lacking clear legality, the Provincial Government still claims the Sesaot Forest status as Tahura. It argues that the MoF Decree No 53/2008 stipulated that partial designation has stronger legal standing position compared with provincial designation. Besides, the Tahura designation has been strengthened through MoF Decree No 598/2009 which changes Sesaot Forest status into Grand Forest Park/Taman Hutan Raya (Tahura). This designation has been compromised and agreed between the Central Government and Provincial Govrenment based on Provincial Government Regulation No 3/2010. To support its authority to manage the area as Tahura, the Provincial Government passes a Governor Decree No 23/2008 that stipulates the creation of Taman Hutan Raya Local Agency who manage and control the area under the supervision of Provincial Forest Agency.

On the other hand, the ‘legal’ process by the Provincial Government to strengthen its claims has cause resistance by the local people and West Lombok Government Regency, especially by its Forest Agency. The resistance is related to the lack of certainty and clarity on Tahura management types that can accommodate communities’ control and management rights as well as the Community Forest (Hutan Kemasyarakatan) permits they received from the MoF since 2009. Around 3857 ha of Sesaot forest is currently under the control and local communities’ management based on community forest (hutan kemasyarakatan) scheme. The local people and the regency government intend to secure local people’s access and use to the forest through community forest scheme. This scheme is a tenure transfer from the MoF that aim to improve the forest cover as well as livelihood. For the local communities, this scheme provides tenure security to use and manage the state claim forest zone. Therefore, when they heard that the forest status was converted to grand forest park, the local people respond it as a threat to their forest rights of access and use as well as livelihood. The displacement of some local communities’ land for deer area, the development of Tahura Nuraksa gate, and the public statement on possibilities of local communities’ eviction from the forest have been regarded as a proof of this threat. Furthermore, the local people claims that the provincial government is preparing a scenario to evict the people from the forest.

Efforts to sustain Sesaot forest status as protected forest have been done such as an ad-hoc team and a published regency decree on settlement of Sesaot forest status as protected forest. Sustaining the status as protected forest for Sesaot forest is the only ‘legal’ strategy by the local people as in term of legality, HKm can only be implemented in protected and production forest while in Tahura, the scheme cannot be putted in practice. Unfortunately, the effort is not successful. Efforts to sustain the Sesaot forest status as protected forest were done by local communities, NGOs and government regency, but they are still in unceration about the outcomes.

 

Reflection on the Methodology

The method able to understand the institutional and governance policies that is the main cause of this conflicting issue. Claim to control the area comes from the expectation of profit and capital and conflict arise when one of the stakeholder use its authority to claim the area.
 

 

PaLA in Sasaot Protected Forest, Mataram, West Nusa Tenggara Province

In Mataram, West Nusa Tenggara, PaLA was conducted in the upstream Jangkok sub-watershed located in Sesaot Protected Forest in 2009. At that time there was no serious problems occur in the area. However, the landscape in Sesaot area becomes a potential threat for illegal logging, forest encroachment, riverbank erosion, landslide and exploitation of springs. The communities identified these potential threats and try to overcome by planting fast grow tree species such as ‘sengon’ (Paraserianthes falcataria) and maintain the stand of old age such as ‘durian pecing’ and mahogany tree. Meanwhile, to decrease forest encroachment and illegal logging, communities with competent authorities conduct regular patrols in the area.

However, the efforts for preventing the problems face difficulties as there is a lack of fund and land management knowledge. At the other hand, coordination between communities and local government (such as forestry department) is low. Through interview and Forum Group Discussion (FGD), communities identified the solutions, there are: selecting trees with economic value (bamboo, palm, durian, jackfruit, mangosteen, dukuh, kemiri, dadap, kweni, pakem/ keluwak, petai and pinang), preparing the boundary markers by trees that can deal with wildlife, conducting institutional strengthening and group capacity training on land management and water conservation, and encouraging coordination with local authorities/ government to address the limited funding.
 

back to top ▲ RaLMA in Bukit Sentul area, Bogor District, West Java Province, Indonesia
By Brawijaya University and ICRAF

The study was carried out from January till May 2008 in the Bukit Sentul area, Bogor District (West Java, Indonesia) by Brawijaya University and ICRAF coordinated by the International Centre for Forestry Research (CIFOR) in areas classified as highly at risk of landslides. Based on geological maps and recent landslide occurrence, the survey focused on the Ciherang and Cibadak sub-catchments followed by inventory of tree species and population density in the selected area. Four types of landslides occurred in Karang Tengah village i.e. overland landslides, slope failure (topple), creep and road-cut landslides; 60 per cent of the total were overland landslides. Factors affecting landslides were identified as rainfall intensity, topography (slope >45%), and features of the soil profile: existence of bedrock or compacted soil layer as sliding plane, existence of unstable soil layer such as sandy loam layer in the sub soil with a low soil shear strength due to higher sand content.

Vegetation in the study area was dominated by 'home-garden' type agroforests with banana (non-woody), Maesopsis eminii (introduced timber species), Pangium edule (source of oil and spice), Ceiba pentandra (kapok) and Sandoricum koetjape (local fruit tree). The highest tree population density was found in agroforestry systems near the scarps of overland landslides; weight of the above-ground tree biomass probably increased the landslide risk.

The local fruit trees duku (Lansium domesticum), kemang (Mangifera kemanga), limus (Mangifera foetida) and mindi (Melia azedarach) have a relatively important role in anchoring the soil (IRA higher than 2.0). A mix of tree species with deep roots and ground cover species with intense and strong fine roots will provide the highest slope stability in the area.

With a recent addition, the SExI-FS (Spatial Explicit Individual-based Forest Simulator) model is able to simulate the role of trees in reducing the risk of landslide through the quantification of species IRB and IRA within a tree plot. The simulation may apply the plot management sensitive scenario. The simulation result on plot management sensitivity shows that maintaining the plot density to the optimum size would be better because increasing the density over the optimum size does not significantly increase the plot root binding.

The combined LEK, MEK and PEK studies can lead to a further discussion of the options for local choice of species, combining direct economic gain, local utility and landslide risk. The primary recommendation of outsiders visiting the village would be to relocate the village, but the options for doing so are limited. Maintenance of the tree root mat of the village-scale 'home-garden' and avoiding houses with rigid walls (replacing the traditional housing of woven bamboo mats) may mitigate local risk in the short term.

 

Reference

The Role of Trees Outside Forest in Anchoring Soil and Reducing Landslide Risk during High Rainfall Episodes. In the TROFCA project report on the role of tropical forests in climate change adaptation by University of Brawijaya and World Agroforestry Centre coordinated by the International Centre for Forestry Research (CIFOR) in 2008

back to top ▲ Implementation of RaCSA, FALLOW, RESFA, DriLUC and RaTA as part of the REDD visibility Study in Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve, Indonesia
By ICRAF, Yayorin (Yayasan Orangutan Indonesia) and Orangutan Foundation UK

The area between the eastern side of Lamandau river and the western side of Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve (LRWR), Kota Waringin Lama, Central Kalimantan, is considered to be a ‘buffer area’ for the reserve. This area is classified as ‘production forest’ with logging rights assigned to a private forestry company and slated for ‘conversion’ to non-forest uses. Given this ‘planned conversion’ status, reassigning the area to remain under natural forest cover could qualify for support as early REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) implementation action. The logging activity ceased in 2003 and left a pretty much depleted landscape of logged-over forest. Part of the area has peat soils. Quantification of the carbon stock and recovery potential is an essential component of REDD planning for the buffer area.

The buffer zone of the Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve is part of a landscape with an average human population density of 40 km² (three times the average for Central Kalimantan province). The buffer zone is used for fishing and small-scale extractive activities and is one of the main production areas of jelutung (Dyera costulata) trees in Indonesia. Jelutung are managed through a locally recognized tree-tenure system. Nearly a fifth of the people in four surrounding villages reported involvement in activities inside the buffer zone, dominantly (82%) as jelutung tappers. The majority of jelutung tappers, however, are landless people from other sub districts.

There is empirical evidence that the existing, NGO-supported system of guard posts protects the current vegetation, but the costs of doing so are high when expressed per unit of avoided CO₂ emission; primary interest in the area is the biodiversity values of the adjacent wildlife reserve. Meaningful investment in both carbon stocks and local livelihoods can focus on the jelutung trees; there is little reason for concern about leakage (negative effects on carbon stocks outside the project area) if this type of protection is pursued. New funding sources, at the end of the current externally supported conservation efforts, will be needed and can, in part, be justified on the basis of carbon stock protection, depending on how strictly additionality rules are interpreted.

With the situation/ condition of Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve, the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Yayorin (Yayasan Orangutan Indonesia) and Orangutan Foundation UK with the financial support of the Climate Change Initiative of the Clinton Foundation conducted the RaCSA, FALLOW, RESFA, DriLUC and RaTA in the area.
 

Carbon stock changes estimation in buffer area of Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve, Indonesia using Rapid Carbon Appraisal (RACSA)

Subekti Rahayu¹⁾, Lili A. Sadikin²⁾, Dedy³⁾, Meine van Noordwijk¹⁾, Laxman Joshi¹⁾, Ni’matul Khasanah¹⁾, and Andree Ekadinata^1)
1) World Agroforestry Centre, ICRAF S.E. Asia, Bogor, Indonesia
²⁾ Yayorin (Yayasan Orangutan Indonesia)
³⁾ Orangutan Foundation UK

Context

The area between the river (on the East side) and the Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve (LRWR) on the West side is now considered to be a ‘buffer area’ for the reserve. This part of Kota Waringin Lama subdistrict (Central Kalimantan) was previously classified as ‘pro¬duc¬tion forests’ with logging rights assigned to a private forest concession and slated for ‘conversion’ to non-forest uses. Given this ‘planned conversion’ status, reassigning the area to remain under natural forest cover could qualify for support as early REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) implementation action. The logging activity ceased in 2003 and left a pretty much depleted landscape of logged-over forest. Part of the area has peat soils. Quantification of the C stock and recovery potential is an essential component of REDD planning for the buffer area. The LRWR is important for orangutan conservation and a bufferzone with wildlife-friendly human land use is desirable.

As part of a comprehensive REDD feasibility study, the RACSA (Rapid Carbon Stock Appraisal) tool was used to explore the impacts of the land cover change on carbon storage and to measure the change of carbon stocks over the past 15 years. The objectives this study were: (1) to estimate aboveground carbon stock at plot level in representative land cover classes ; (2) to estimate belowground carbon stock at plot level, for peat as well as mineral soil parts of the landscape; (3) to estimate the carbon emission and sequestration rate of the buffer area and its surrounding landscape (two sub districts: Arut Selatan and Kota Waringin lama); and (4) to estimate the feasible recovery rate of carbon stocks (under a REDD+ scheme that includes ‘restoration’). Land cover change was quantified using area-based changes analysis and trajectory analysis methods. Information of changes was derived from land cover maps constructed from satellite imagery of 1990, 2000 and 2005.

 

Salient findings

In the 1990 to 2000 period when logging activities and timber extraction by local community and private company of forest concessions reached their historical peak, 30% (3.5%/year) of the swamp forest on peat was degraded into logged over swamp forest and shrub (Table 1). From 2000 to 2005 forest conversion was a rate of 2%/year. By 2005 16% of the buffer area remained as intact forest and 67% as logged over forest, with the remainder in more open vegetation types (Table 2). Compared to the buffer area, land use change across the two subdistricts was more drastic, especially in the northern part.

Trees contained 80% of aboveground carbon stock in low-density logged-over forest and more than 90% in medium and high density logged-over forests (Figure 1). Carbon stock in high density logged-over forest was similar to that of old rubber gardens in the area at 71 ton/ha. It was significantly less in medium density (46 ton/ha) and low density forests (24 ton/ha). Open areas with grass and shrubs had very low carbon stock of about 1 ton/ha. Fern had higher carbon density than grassland, about 7 ton/ha. Nypa palm vegetation s contained 28 ton C/ha and Pandanus 54 ton C/ha. Young rubber (<15 years old) in sandy soil had 24 ton C/ha while old rubber mixed with Dyera (jelutung) had 77 tonC/ha.

Table 1. Change matrix (% of total area) for the buffer area in the period 1990 – 2000; the identity diagonal is marked in grey, values to the right indicate loss of C, values to the left C increments

1990	2000
	Undisturbed mangrove	Undisturbed/ lightly disturbed swamp forest on peat	Logged over swamp forest on peat	Shrub on peat	Grass on peat	Shrub	Cropland	Settlement	Water body	Grand Total
Undisturbed mangrove	0.00			0.06						0.06
Undisturbed/ lightly disturbed swamp forest on peat		19.20	5.39	2.60	0.40	0.01	0.00			27.60
Logged over swamp forest on peat			64.29	2.97	1.01			0.18		68.45
Shrub on peat				0.74	1.50					2.23
Shrub				0.01		0.00				0.01
Settlement								1.31		1.31
Water body									0.35	0.35
Grand Total	0.00	19.20	69.68	6.37	2.90	0.01	0.00	1.48	0.35	100

 

Table 2. Change matrix (% of total area) for the buffer area in the period 2000 – 2005 (differences between end position in table 1 and start in table 2 are due to cloud cover).

2000	2005
	Undisturbed/ lightly disturbed swamp forest on peat	Logged over swamp forest on peat	Shrub on peat	Grass on peat	Shrub	Cleared land on peat	Cropland on peat	Cropland	Settlement	Waterbody	Grand Total
Undisturbed/ lightly disturbed swamp forest on peat	15.82	3.39			0.05						19.26
Logged over swamp forest on peat		66.96	2.15		0.03	0.47			0.01		69.61
Shrub on peat			5.82		0.07	0.24	0.20		0.04		6.37
Grass on peat			0.65	2.25		0.00					2.91
Shrub					0.01						0.01
Cropland								0.00			0.00
Settlement									1.49		1.49
Water body										0.35	0.35
Grand Total	15.82	70.35	8.61	2.25	0.17	0.71	0.20	0.00	1.54	0.35	100

Figure 1. Aboveground carbon stock in various land use of LRWR buffer area
 

Belowground carbon stock in mineral soil was found to be low - 31.5 ton C/ha up to 30 cm depth. Carbon stock of peat, based on bulk density and ash content measurements, was closely related to peat dept (16-450 cm),at a rate of 69 ton/ha per m of peat (Figure 2). On average peat depth was 134 cm with 84 ton C/ha. Bulk density of the peat ranged between 0.08-0.6 with average 0.21 g/cm³.

Figure 2. Relationship between peat depth and belowground carbon stock in peat land

Combining land cover change and typical C stock data, CO₂ emission of the buffer area the conversion on peat of undisturbed swamp forest on peat to logged-over swamp forest appeared to be the highest source of emission (3.04 Mg CO₂-eq ha^-1 yr^-1 and 1.90 Mg CO₂-eq yr^-1, respectively). For the 2000 – 2005 period, the rate of emission decreased by 20%. But conversion of undisturbed swamp forest (3 % to logged-over swamp forest and 2 % to shrub, respectively) was still the largest source of emission (3.82 Mg CO₂-eq ha^-1 yr^-1 and 0.71 Mg CO₂-eq ha^-1 yr^-1, respectively). C emission rates outside the buffer area were nearly eight times higher in the 1990-2000 period and at least double in the 2000-2005 period (Table 3).

Table 3. Carbon emission and sequestration of buffer area.

Location	Year	Net emission	Emission	Sequestration
		(Mg CO2-eq ha-1 yr-1)
Buffer area	1990 – 2000	5.97	5.97	0.003
	2000 - 2005	4.78	4.78	0.002
Non buffer area1)	1990 – 2000	44.71	45.92	1.21
	2000 - 2005	8.63	11.60	2.97

_{1) The rest of the area in two sub districts including LRWR, main source of emission is conversion of undisturbed forest into others type of land cover/use in the northern part of the area.}

 

Assuming low density logged-over forest recovered since 5 year ago, medium density growth since 10 years and high density grows since 30 years ago, the annual carbon sequestration rate was estimated at 1.3 ton ha^-1 year^-1 (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Annual carbon stock increment in logged-over forest from low to medium and high density, assuming effective time after logging per density class

Reflection on the methodology

The RaCSA method was relatively apply to explore the impacts of the land cover change on carbon storage and rate of CO₂ emission and sequestration. However, different land cover classes between the results of image analysis and plot-level carbon measurements were difficult to reconcile in up-scaling carbon emission and sequestration from plot into landscape level. The peat terrain was a challenge for the fieldwork and short-range variation in peat depth was a challenge for area-based averages, but data on peat density, ash content and depth showed replicable patterns. The rubber gardens and forest patches managed for their jelutung trees were not recognized in the land cover analysis, but proved to have the highest and probably most secure C stocks. The RACSA data formed the background for land use change scenario studies with the FALLOW model (see separate summary).
 

 

Exploration of Landscape Dynamic in the Buffer Area of Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve and its neighboring area, Central Kalimantan using FALLOW model

Rahmat Mulia, Ni’matul Khasanah, Meine van Noordwijk and M. Thoha Zulkarnain
World Agroforestry Centre, ICRAF S.E. Asia, Bogor, Indonesia
 

Context
The buffer area (23,600 ha) to the East of the Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve (LRWR) in Kota Waringin Lama subdistrict, Central Kalimantan is a logged-over production forest that was earmarked for conversion to non-forest use, but is now a candidate target for forest landscape restoration, as part of early action on REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation). As part of a feasibility study, the FALLOW (Forest, Agroforest, Low-value Land Or Waste?; Van Noordwijk (2002) and Suyamto et al., 2009) simulation model was used for exploration the plausible future landscape mosaics not only the buffer area but also for the LRWR and the two sub districts Arut Selatan and Kota Waringin Lama. The wider area can help to understand the issues of leakage and additionality, in relating human use of the landscape to C stock changes.

 

Salient findings

Based on the RACSA carbon stock study and the analysis of livelihood strategies, five scenarios were defined to assess possible land cover changes inside and outside the LRWR and its buffer area (Table 1). Economic and ecological performance indicators were used to observe the consequences of such scenarios in the landscape.

 

Table 1. Scenarios for the exploration of landscape dynamic

Scenario	Brief description
Baseline (current trends)	Five commodities are of a primary concern for farmers in the area: Rubber (plantation), timber (Gmelina arborea), agroforest (with rubber as dominant commodity), rice as agriculture, and Jelutung as non-timber forest product (NTFP) and no logging activity.
Increased use of Jelutung	Promoting Jelutung trees in young secondary forest were assumed, extending Jelutung production beyond the old secondary forest, as in the baseline. The yield is assumed to be the same as in the old secondary forest, i.e. 0.99 ton ha-1.
Logging	In this scenario, logging was made de facto possible in all forestry plots except the forest reserve (i.e. LRWR and its buffer area). This scenario represents the abolishment of current illegal logging control and is included to test the short-term economic benefits foregone by current forest protection policies.
Oil Palm A (outside buffer area)	Oil palm was introduced as an alternative commodity for the farmers in the simulated area, outside the LRWR and its buffer area. This assumes forms of ‘smallholder oil palm’ that start to emerge. No immigration of labour.
Oil Palm B (incl. buffer area)	Here oil palm plantations are possible to establish inside the LRWR and its buffer area. No immigration of labour.

The baseline (Business As Usual or BAU) scenario, with full protection of remaining forest across the two subdistricts, predicted that the gross emissions would come to a halt in the 2005-2035 periods, and that the gross sequestration of 2.5 Mg CO₂-eq yr^-1 would be approximately the net sequestration rate (Table 2). The other scenarios are expressed by difference to this BAU, based on ‘additionality’. Figure 1A-F describes the final land cover mosaic in the landscape related to the five scenarios. It can be noticed that the ‘red’ landscape took place with logging scenario and the LRWR and its buffer area were mostly converted to oil palm plantation with Oil Palm B scenario.

Figure 1. Final landcover mosaics in two districts (Kotawaringin Lama and Arut Selatan) Central Kalimantan estimated by the FALLOW model. The green area in the lower part of the map is the Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve (LRWR) and its buffer zone. Pfor = pioneer forest, ysec = young secondary forest, osec = old secondary forest, prim = primary forest, est = rubber plantation, agrofor = agroforestry (rubber dominated), timber = timber plantation (Gmelina arborea trees), op = oil palm.

 

Averaged over 30 years, the Jelutung scenario is expected to increase above-ground biomass around 1.2 Mton over the landscape, compared to the baseline (Figure 2A). This is achieved largely through ‘C stock saving’, because fewer plots were converted for other livelihood options. The secondary consumption in this scenario is also expected to increase relative to BAU, by around 0.3 MRp capita^-1 year^-1 (Figure 2A), due to the sales of this NTFP to the market. Introducing oil palm plantation as one of livelihood options attracts farmers to clear plots in the area and this increases the economical level around 0.17 MRp capita^-1 year^-1 compared to baseline (Figure 2A). Interestingly, the model also predicts a net increase in landscape level C stock, because fewer plots were opened for other livelihood options. However, the ‘green’ scenario with Oil Palm A was turned into ‘red’ with Oil Palm B (Figure 2A). Despite the increase in terms of economic level by 0.4 MRp capita^-1 year^-1 compared to the baseline (around doubled compared to Oil Palm A), the biomass value was less than the baseline because of massive opening of the LRWR and its buffer area considered as forest reserve in other scenarios. Legal or illegal logging remains a very attractive option from a short-term local livelihood perspective (Figure 2B).


Figure 2. Economic and ecologic level compared to the baseline scenario predicted by the FALLOW model with five three scenarios: baseline, Jelutung, Oil Palm A, B and logging. The simulation was carried out for 30 years. Mton = Mega ton, MRp = million rupiah

 

Table 2. Carbon emission and sequestration of buffer area and its surrounding.

Location	Year	Net emission	Emission	Sequestration
		(Mg CO2-eq ha-1 yr-1)
Buffer area: measured LU dynamic	1990 – 2000	7.30	7.30	0.00
	2000 - 2005	5.86	5.86	0.00
2005 – 2035 Buffer area	Baseline	-2.49	0.02	2.51
	Jelutung	-2.58	0.01	2.59
	Logging	-2.52	0.03	2.55
	Oil palm A	-2.54	0.02	2.55
	Oil palm B	0.54	2.09	1.55
2005 – 2035 Non buffer area1)	Baseline	0.36	2.02	1.64
	Jelutung	-0.89	1.20	2.09
	Logging	0.84	1.50	0.66
	Oil palm A	-0.005	1.75	1.76
	Oil palm B	0.15	1.84	1.69

^{1) The rest of the area in two sub districts, not including LRWR.}

 

Protecting the buffer area significantly raised sequestration rate in this area in any scenarios. In contrast, permitting planting oil palm inside buffer area significantly increased net emission rate. Promoting jelutung trees significantly increases the sequestration rate, not only in the buffer area, but also outside the buffer area, by absorbing labour.

Based on the land cover changes and carbon emission calculation we conclude, the recent rate of land conversion and emission within the buffer zone has been much lower than that in the surrounding area. From 2000 to 2005 where the logging activities and timber extraction were ceased, the rate of emission 20% decrease. Avoiding further changes of undisturbed swamp forest can significantly reduce the emission rate. This high emission in the surrounding area points to the significant risks of ‘leakage’: activities to protect the carbon stock in the buffer zone can contribute to an increase of emissions elsewhere, unless labour is absorbed in the area, alongside C stock protection.

The logical links between use of the buffer zone and the surrounding landscape need to be explored to interpret such patterns. The FALLOW model, even though its calibration to local conditions leaves much to be improved, suggests two quite different approaches:

1. support for Jelutung as NTFP in the buffer area can be expected to absorb labour and provide returns to labour above the average for the landscape as a whole
2. promotion of oil palm on degraded, non-peat soils outside the buffer area can absorb labour and reduce the pressure on relatively C rich land cover types.

The first of these two approaches is likely to be considered in a REDD project design for the buffer area, the second requires a wider context of spatial planning, but may be at least as effective. Combinations of these approaches are feasible, but requires a more detailed parameterization. The focus of the feasibility study on the buffer area as such, will need to be complemented by a broader understanding of the surrounding landscape in order to fully access additionality and leakage issue for a spatially targeted REDD pilot design.

 

Reflection on the methodology

The way labour, land, knowledge and capital are logically linked in a landscape dynamic model such as FALLOW allows exploration of the possible impact of various types of land cover changes to the changes of economic and ecological performance. The results are to be treated at ‘qualitative’ level, as availability of data to estimate input parameters was very limited. Further data collection and model validation would be needed in full project design phase. The option of combining ‘internal’ (such as the Jelutung option) and ‘external’ (Oilpalm A) options to conserve C stocks as well as livelihood options in the landscape is attractive and can be used as input to the stakeholder discussions and negotiations with local government.

References

Van Noordwijk, M. 2002. Scaling trade-offs between crop productivity, carbon stocks and biodiversity in shifting cultivation landscape mosaics: the FALLOW model. Ecological Modeling 149: 113-126.

Suyamto, D.A., Mulia, R., van Noordwijk, M., and Lusiana, B. 2009. FALLOW 2.0. Manual and Software. World Agroforestry Centre, Bogor, Indonesia, 68 pp.

 

 

Pre-feasibility study for REDD+ project in buffer area of Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve in Central Kalimantan

Laxman Joshi and Meine van Noordwijk
World Agroforestry Centre, ICRAF S.E. Asia, Bogor, Indonesia

Context

Tropical deforestation and land degradation continue to be a major source of green-house gas (GHG) emissions, particularly in developing countries, thus accelerating climate change. Incentive based mechanisms to halt and reduce deforestation and land degradation are being discussed at international, national and sub-national levels (under REDD+ program) to address land-based GHG emission. Many developing countries have shown strong interest in REDD+ and many projects have been initiated to establish REDD demonstrations around the world. However, a key risk in designing any REDD demonstration project with a narrow focus on reducing GHG emission is that this can reduce access of forest dependent communities, do little to alleviate poverty and undermine the voice and interest of the local/indigenous communities. In a real world context, any REDD project will succeed only if it reduces emission of GHG from the protected area and its vicinity and contributes to, or at least maintains, the livelihoods of the local communities. Hence, alternative land use management options, initiated by a REDD project should fully consider implications on both the land use and the local livelihoods. Issues of leakage and permanence must adequately investigated. Quantitative ex-ante assessments of carbon emission reductions under various land use alternatives will help in the design of better REDD projects. A rapid assessment of livelihoods, tenure and institutional arrangements, carbon stocks, land use change and land management options can lead to the development of more appropriate and realistic REDD projects that have a better chance of success.

The Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve (LRWR) forest conservation and community development project is one of a portfolio of twenty-one proposed REDD demonstration projects included in a Clinton Climate Initiative-Forestry proposal. The regional program aims to demonstrate how REDD projects can contribute to helping forest-dependent communities move out of poverty, to conserving tropical forests, and to ensuring real reductions in GHG emissions associated with land use, land cover changes and deforestation. The buffer area (23,600 ha) to the east of LRWR in Kota Waringin Lama subdistrict, Central Kalimantan is a logged-over production forest that was earmarked for conversion to non-forest use. It is now a candidate target for forest landscape restoration, under a REDD project.

Figure 1. Location of Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve (LRWR).
 

REDD Site-level Feasibility Appraisal (RESFA)

A RESFA methodology was developed for assessing current livelihood options, carbon stock, institutional setup, land management alternatives and their effect on both carbon stock and human livelihoods. The primary aim of the assessment is to find answers to the following questions:

1. Is it worthwhile to pursue a project to reduce net emissions from land use (including forest) for the targeted area, or will it be too complicated, too costly or low in co-benefit returns?
2. If so, what directions can best be pursued in project design?

Figure 2. Components of RESFA framework.

 

The RESFA approach comprehensively accommodates all primary components essential in a feasibility study. Study of these components can employ existing tools (both developed at and outside ICRAF), techniques and models. RESFA provides ample flexibility to add or remove tools based on context and necessity.

For the feasibility study in the buffer area around LRWR, the study was divided under five headings:
A. Socio-economics, livelihood options and institutions
B. Land use change analysis
C. Carbon stock assessment
D. Tenure assessment
E. Baseline and scenario analysis

1. The study was initiated in June 2009 and the field work was completed in September. During this period, background information were collected about site, current land use and land use change, available maps and datasets, socioeconomic context, local ecological knowledge major habitat types;
2. The project boundaries were clarified and leakage belts based on the Pedroni methodology were ascertained.
3. Quantify carbon storage and current and projected deforestation rates at the site were determined.
4. A baseline scenario for the site was developed in consultation with local experts and NGO staff.
5. Plausible project scenarios were developed and possible emission reduction benefits from these scenarios over the coming 30 years were simulated using simulation modeling (FALLOW) , with graphs and tables listing annual amounts.
6. The issues of risks related to permanence, leakage and additionality were assessed.
7. Recommendations were developed based on the findings of the five components of the study.

Summary reports from the use of tools (Drivers of Land Use Change, RATA, RaCSA and Scenarios Assessments) including lessons and reflections on the methods and salient findings have been written up as separately documents.

Salient findings

Based on the findings of various components, the following conclusions/recommendations are made:

• There is potential, albeit small, benefit to C-stock through a REDD project in the buffer zone area – A REDD project based only on the carbon argument does not appear feasible – current protection is effective; “additionality” benefits will be relatively small.
• However, additional co-benefits of biodiversity conservation and livelihood improvement, if properly designed, will make a REDD project feasible.
• A REDD project can be feasible for the LRWR buffer area IF:
  • logging, land clearing and burning inside protected areas can be strictly controlled (increased C accumulation)
  • jelutung and other valuable trees in and outside the forests can be promoted (planting and protection for use) (sustain livelihoods)
  • local people may continue to fish, tap jelutung (in a controlled manner) inside the buffer zone area (to avoid leakage and sustain livelihood)
  • Tenure status can be secured, preferably under community control (to reduce threat of conversion)
  • Tree use rights can be enhanced separate from land rights
  • CC adaptation elements at the coast are included
  • NAMA-GAMA rules allow for multifunctionality across funding streams, rather than strict views on additionality
  • LAMA-NAMA relations: the Ministry of Forestry stakeholders can be expected to agree

 

Reflection of the RESFA approach

The RESFA provided a useful framework to design the overall feasibility study, organize the research team and jointly develop recommendations.

1. A large team comprising of a range of experts were involved intensively for a relative short period (3 weeks in the field). This was effective
2. A close collaboration was required by the study team to acquire both secondary and primary data and information necessary. The local NGO partners and the government agencies were very co-operative in providing available information.
3. Finding useful information and available was a major task. Processing some of the available data (namely the socio-economic data and spatial data) that had not been previously analysed would have taken too much effort. Given the time limitation, it was decided to conduct rapid questionnaire surveys and focussed group discussions in the nearby villages for socio-economic data.
4. Regular meetings with local NGO staff, and other key members of the study team led to refinement of study conclusions recommendations.

 

 

 

Moving Beyond the Impasse: Seeking Tenure Security through Forest Stewardship

Gamma Galudra

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) Southeast Asia

Study Background

With a steady degradation of the Indonesia’s tropical forests and reduced confidence in the protected-area model, some attention has turned to the potential role that community-claimed forests could play in carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation. In Indonesia, the customary lands often comprise tapestries of homesteads and farms, fallowed fields, mature secondary forest and the hinterland of riverine and primary forests, which could potentially serve as refuges for threatened forest and biodiversity. With long histories of residence, active use of the forest landscape, and an apparent affinity to the forest, many local or indigenous community lifestyles have been seen to represent a more gentle and peaceable future for tropical forests.

However, the lack of legal rights of ownership and access to designated state forest areas has proven to be the major stumbling block to these movements. Customary claims are frequently not adequately recognized by modern government administrations or the same forest resources are classified under the eminent domain of the state. In such instances, strengthening local tenure in collaboration with local residents can be considered as a valid endeavor to stem imminent threats to important natural areas. The move is also underscored by the belief that this could contribute to the restoration of communal management systems and, in the process, establish spaces where biodiversity, carbon and community interests might coexist.

The site for this work is located in Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. It is located in two regencies, Sukamara Regency covering the western part of the Reserve, and Kotawaringin Barat Regency covering the eastern part. The area refers to the large area in the lower reaches of the Lamandau River, an area covering 76 000 hectares wide in the southwestern-most tip of Kalimantan. Globally, the area is of considerable conservation significance. It is believed to rival Tanjung Puting National Park in terms of plant endemism and species diversity, particularly within the pockets of endangered orang utan (Pongo pygmaeus) throughout the area. Two aims were set:

1. To unearth the possible forest land-use claims and rights in the eastern buffer zone of LRWR.
2. To acknowledge the potential for synergy between strengthening forest tenure, conserving biodiversity and carbon sequestration.

 

Teasing Out Spaces for Biodiversity and Carbon Sequestration Area in Eastern Buffer Zone of LRWR

The eastern part of LRWR comprises four villages (Mendawai, Mendawai Seberang, Tanjung Terantang and Tanjung Putri–Pendulangan) with a combined population of approximately 20 789 people, centred at the mouths of the Arut River and downstream of the Lamandau River. The people of these villages are mainly fishermen and wet-rice/dry-rice farmers, although rubber, vegetables and tubers are also grown. Rivers supply fresh water and fish and the forest land is an important source of firewood and building materials (bamboo, rattan and wood). Local people still regularly access forest resources far beyond existing farms and homesteads, particularly for collecting jelutung (Dyera costulata) that only grows in the pristine forest areas. The seasonality of cash incomes makes the forest both a lifeline and a safety net for local people.

The shift of their access to proprietary rights has to ensure that it would not undermine the importance of shared forest resources. Bearing this in mind, it was imperative that the buffer zone was established on state land to safeguard resources for domestic access. Traditionally, for the Mendawai community, in common with many other peoples living in Central Kalimantan, rights to a territory are held individually and these rights can be asserted in the area called communal traditional territory. Within this territory, any village member can clear the forest to make a swidden. If an individual cleared a patch of forest without knowing the history of clearance, he and his descendants could lay claim to this land (Abdurahman 1996). A hundred years later, the Mendawai community pattern is unlike that of the past. Migrants from Java, Banjar and Bugis, through spontaneous migration during the forest concession era and government transmigration programs in the 1980s, now live in this area and have changed the communal traditional territory.

There are contrasting points of view about traditional land territorial claims. The Mendawai community claims 2.5 km of an area from the Lamandau and Arut riverbanks as their traditional right. This right covers all local communities’ access and use such as shifting cultivation, settlement, hunting grounds, protected areas and rights to extract NTFPs. Their claim is in line with the governor of Central Kalimantan province’s statement in 1998 that a distance of 2.5 to 5 km from the riverbanks should be given back to the communities under customary land-use rights, although his statement did not have any legal standing. However, not all community members are aware of this territorial right, raising the question of whether this right is actually held and passed down from their ancestors’ customs or whether it is only an introduction from the local government during the Reformasi period. During Reformasi, opportunities arose to exploit ambiguities and confusions in translating customary claims into legal title. The superimposition of statutory legal systems on customary systems creates new windows of opportunity for people to take advantage of multiple systems of claiming resources (Peluso 1995).

The villagers’ traditional history claims that in this area there was an existing customary institution that controlled and governed communities’ access. During that time, the area was held as a common right. The authors did not find any customary institution that currently has any jurisdiction in the area. Even though the communities have a weak legal land claim on the forest, they have some claim toward the trees within the forest. Some members of the community stated the customary rule on tapping jelutung. A villager who first discovers an unmarked jelutung tree can tap and own the tree. This tree can be regarded as a private right. According to customary law, others who tap these trees without the owners’ consent will be fined.

Such commitments and agreements can be built with local communities who access the buffer zone forest. Those who directly depend on forest are naturally perceived as having a greater right to defend their livelihoods and living environments. Indirectly, they stand to be a voice for forest conservation. Some immediate options based on government regulations can be used to improve current policies and practices governing the management of buffer zone forest. The Forestry Department has issued a number of regulations concerning local communities’ management and control of the forest land. Table 1 shows several tenure-transfer schemes within the production forest based on government regulations. These regulations provide tenure security for local communities to access and use the buffer zone forest resources.

Table 1. Government regulations for tenure-transfer schemes in production forest (Hutan Produksi)

Tenure-Transfer Schemes	Governing Institution	Type of Right Held	Duration of Rights
Community Forestry (Hutan Kemasyarakatan)	Forest farmer groups, but after five years must create a farmers’ economic enterprise (Koperasi)	Group utilization and harvesting rights. A quota for these rights is imposed each year. ·   Planted timbers to 50 m3 ·   Non-timber products to 20 t	35 years with renewal option. Evaluated every five years.
People’s Plantation Forest (Hutan Tanaman Rakyat)	Individuals and farmers’ economic enterprise (Koperasi)	Private or group utilization and harvesting rights. No quota is imposed.	60 years and can be extended for another 35 years.
Village Forest (Hutan Desa)	Village institution (Lembaga Desa), based on village regulation	Management right. A quota for these rights is imposed each year. ·   Planted timbers to 50 m3 ·   Non-timber products to 20 t	35 years with renewal option. Evaluated every five years.

^{Source: MoF No. 22/2009; No. 18/2009; No. 49/2008; No. 5/2008; No. 37/2007 and No. 23/2007}
 

The village forest (hutan desa) provides different rights compared to the other schemes. However, it is uncertain whether these rights are really different, as the rules of use and access are fully controlled by the government. On the contrary, the people’s plantation forest (Hutan Tanaman Rakyat) gives longer access to the forest. Unfortunately, this scheme is more centralized: planning, monitoring and evaluation are under the jurisdiction of the central government. The other schemes give more roles to the local government in planning, monitoring and evaluation.

Even though these schemes offer legal tenure security for conservation, carbon sequestration and community participation, it is still uncertain how these schemes can fully integrate with customary rules and a local tenure system. Yet, these schemes certainly help to settle land tenure conflicts. Several case studies, such as in Lampung, Jambi, Gunung Kidul and Lombok, show the success of minimizing land tenure conflicts and settling competing claims and interests among different actors. Providing secure access for local communities to obtain benefits from timber and non-timber products inside the state forest zone and measured guarantees from local communities to protect the forest’s environmental services help to minimize tension among conflicting actors. Based on these experiences, the community forestry schemes may offer a promising way to synergize different and competing interests for biodiversity, carbon and livelihoods. Furthermore, these schemes, based on Ministry of Forestry Decree No. 30 and 36/2009, could also receive REDD+ incentives. However, to decide which scheme is the most appropriate will depend on a negotiation process with several interested stakeholders.

Reflection on the Methodology

Land tenure claim conflict cannot be separated from other forms of claims such as tree, water etc. Despite the limitation of this tool’s scope, we should not neglect the possibilities of other tenure forms that might be also under dispute, such as tree tenure, water etc. In Lamandau, land claims are different from tree claims. Therefore, there is a need to assess how this different claim can be put to carbon rights.
 

 

Local Drivers of Land Use Change in Buffer Area of Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve in Kotawaringin Barat, Kalimantan Tengah Province, Indonesia

E. Mulyoutami, A. Ekadinata, L. Joshi, M. Sofiyuddin, S. Budidarsono

Introduction

As part of the overall REDD feasibility study (see separate leaflet by Joshi and van Noordwijk for background information), a landscape dynamic analysis that portrayed socio-economic status and livelihoods of communities living around the buffer area of Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve (LRWR) was carried out. The overall purpose was to assess the local livelihoods context and drivers of land use change that affect provision of environmental services. This paper discusses the DriLUC approach that provides a framework to assess multiple interests and stakes in the landscape.

 

Methods

The primary objective of DRILUC framework is to provide a systems-level understanding of the way local drivers of land use change in a landscape related to external conditions and the types of local/regional/national feedback that impacts livelihoods and the provision of goods and environmental services. Existing relevant documents were studied, available socio economic and other data were analysed, questionnaire surveys were conducted and a series of consultations with local communities, politicians, environment activists were organized.

Steps in DriLUC:

Steps		Activity (methods)	Expected Output
Step 1 Document changes trend
	Land cover	Land cover and land use maps Ecological and other biophysical map	Elements of land cover and land use change
	Demographic	Review on literature and statistical data available Historical analysis – local consultation	Elements of demographic change
	Economic		Elements of economic changes and indicator
Step 2 Define the main driver of land use changes Outlining and analyzing trends in farming system Identifying drivers of historic farming developments		Focus group discussion with local community In depth interview Secondary data and literature analysis Informal consultation with relevant stakeholders	Driver or group of drivers of land use change: internal dynamics and external factors Local and global consequences on livelihood and health, assets and risk, and environmental services
Step 3 Identify local – national linkage of the five capitals		Informal consultation with relevant stakeholders Structured interview or focus group discussion with local stakeholders Literature review	Dimension of rural poverty and the interaction in broader context Document of policy domain related to governance and poverty reduction strategies
Step 4 Determine the position on the (agro)forest transition baseline		Desktop review Field observation (Site visit) Spatial analysis	Status of current land use or agroforest system in relation with tenurial controls, physical, economic and political access to market
Step 5 Dynamics along the segregate-integrate axis		Identify the spatial pattern of the various land cover types Distinguish fully 'segregated' or zoned systems from those that are more integrated and multifunctional	Driving forces to increase or decrease functional integration of changes in tree cover (deforestation/reforestation)
Step 6 Recognized stages of conflict and collective action		Local consultation with community and other stakeholder Desktop review	Degree of community structures: level social capital with consider collective action, strength of local institution Document of conflict threat
Step 7 Understand agents of land use changes and stakeholder views on the goods versus services trade off		Analysis drivers of change interaction with relevance stakeholders views on profitability and conservation Consultation with related stakeholder (community, institution agency, and others)	Potential relevance of environmental services rewards

Lesson learned on methods development:

The method is useful for an in-depth understanding of the process of land use change, the impacts of changing environment and linking up with the environmental services of goods and conservation.

Consultations with relevant stakeholders (out of community) play an important role in identifying local – national linkage in particular on the five capitals. Linking in local, regional (provincial level) must be more in depth and clear before it takes up to broader context.

Study Area

The study site is the buffer area of LRWR and the settlements surrounding the buffer area. The site is administratively situated in Arut Selatan Sub district (Kecamatan) Kotawaringin Barat District (Kabupaten), Central Kalimantan Province. The buffer area of LRWR is secondary lowland swamp area that was previously HPH area. It has high biodiversity value and plays an important role as orangutan rehabilitation and conservation areas.

Trend of change

Land use change in buffer area of LRWR and surrounding area

Forest loss was mainly due to changes from forest (undisturbed or log over) to non forest categories. Forest degradation is changes from undisturbed forest to logged over forest or between log over forest of high density to logged over forest of low density. Forest loss mainly occurs along the northern part of Kotawaringin Barat areas; while the buffer area on the southern part of the district remained largely unchanged within two periods of time.

Figure 1 Land cover in Kotawaringin Barat in 1990, 2000 and 2005

 

 

Figure 2 Forest Cover Change - Buffer Zone Vicinity Area

Land use or land cover changes within the buffer area are much lower in terms of extent of areas, percentages and the conversion towards much intensified land uses. This shows that the management and protection of the buffer area has been successful to a large extent.

Outside the buffer and wildlife reserve areas, in which the designation of lands vary from production forest (both convertible and non-convertible) and land for other uses, the land use or land cover was much more dynamic during the study period. The period of 1990-2000 was when most of the changes (especially forest cover change) occurred.

Demographic and economic changes

Dynamics of demographic, livelihood and economic development could be understood in five periods of time, indicated by the escalation of logging activities, banning policy, as well as plantation development.

Table 1. Demographic, economic and livelihood information from communities area around Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve buffer area.

Before 1990	Subsistence	NTFP extraction: rattan, dammar,  jelutung, gaharu, katiau, kalanis, ehang, and nyatu Traditional gold miner Swidden, Fishing	In migration Low	Forestry sector Jelutung production Gemor production	Resource extraction Economic development
1990 – 1998	Commercial-scale logging era	Logger Transportation services Trader	In migration – increase more than 2 times from 1970	Jelutung production in early periods Forest extraction, ramin and log export	Resource extraction Economic development Urban growth
1998 - 2000	High intense of logging era	Logger Transportation services Trader		Forest extraction, ramin and log export	Resource extraction
1998 – 2006	Logging ban era (decree of Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve)	Fishing – commercial Transportation service Trader Illegal logger	In migration – increase 100% from 1970	Forestry, ramin and log Plantation with economic growth rate 5% per year	National and regional policy Agricultural development
2006 – recent	Natural resource management by KPEL	Salvage logging Fishing - commercial Trader Farming – some are irrigated rice Jobs linked to oil palm		Plantation (oil palm) Irrigated paddy Jelutung production	Land conversion (plantation development) Economic crisis

 

Factors driving land use or land cover change

Using local consultation and analyzing available spatial data, this study examined major factors that drove land use and land cover change on the local scale.

 

Currently, majority of the people have passed through the transitional stage from logging activities to emerging cash oriented activities. From late 80s to present, local livelihoods have basically changed, shifting from subsistence to market-oriented land use systems. Local interest on agricultural farming is currently relatively low as people prefer sources of quick income such as fishing, off farm labor, oil palm workers. This could become a threat - illegal logging and hunting activities, oil palm expansion, and use of poisonous or electric for fishing. This also led to the temporary employment outside the landscape or even permanent outmigration.

Policy domains

There are two types of policies that affect land use or land cover: first, the conservation and planning policies that directly affect land use land cover; and second, the policies that indirectly affect the shape of landscapes.

Ministry of Forestry Decree No. 162/Kpts-II/1998	Conserving and protecting biodiversity with define Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve (LRWR)	Direct
Minister of Forestry decree No. 127 of 2001	Logging ban of Ramin	Indirect

 

Forest Land Gazettement Agency (BPKH-Balai Pemantapan Kawasan Hutan) had defined boundary definitive of Lamandau River Wildlife Reserve, and it led to establishment of guard posts and patrolling. Positioning ‘guard post or pos jaga’ on stream mouth (on the junction) on the main river was effective in reducing illegal activities both inside Wildlife Reserve and in the buffer area.

KPEL (Partnership for Local Economic Development) was then formed with involving four agencies - BKSDA Natural Resources Conservation Agency of Central Kalimantan), Orangutan Foundation UK (OF UK), Yayasan Orangutan Indonesia (YAYORIN), and local government was formed on 2007 aiming to manage and control LRWR. This also led to the regulation to control all activities inside the buffer and LRWR. Less instrusive harvesting such as jelutung tapping, net fishing and floating net fish, and also water tapping. People wishing to conduct such activities inside the buffer area must get a license from BKSDA.

Agricultural and forest dynamics

Agriculture	Land conversion	Available land Lack of skill and technology Low income and food security value due to harvest failure (Frequent flood and sea water intrusion) Some unsustainable practices	Low carbon, biodiversity, and watershed function	Maintain crops, diversification products through agroforestry Rubber garden and enrich with Jelutung trees Improving farming technology
Rubber – extensive management	Land conversion	Available land Low quality of planting material Monoculture		Rubber agroforest system Improving farming technology
Non timber forest products - Jelutung	Decreasing jelutung productivity	Unproductive aged and low availability Majority of jelutung tappers are landless people	High value of carbon, biodiversity and watershed function if it in the forest	Planting more jelutung trees?

Frequent flooding and sea water intrusion make farming risky in the area. Alternative farming technology and flood control methods may help retain some people in agriculture. Diversification in crop land with jelutung can be a good alternative since jelutung is well adapted to peat. A program to increase jelutung trees inside and outside buffer area may also help the jelutung tappers who are normally landless. Market chain and value of jelutung trees would be essential in designing jelutung planting program since only few literatures found on market channeled.

Stages of conflict and collective actions

The major ethnic group in the study area is Malay, and most of them are not indigenous inhabitants. Hence, there is no strong local customary institution. As common among Muslim communities, religion is an important community glue that enhances social capital and local trust. Some tenurial claims exist that are based on local people’s traditional access and use rights of forests, old settlements, ex rubber trees and rice field. Tree level tenure is also present in case of Jelutung trees. While no conflicts are reported yet, the threat of conflict is increasing as forest authority is limiting the local communities’ access to forest.

Reflection on the use of DriLuc and livelihoods survey
The combined study to understand local livelihoods, their basis and drivers of land use change was useful in extracting useful information in a relatively short period. While more detailed and sophisticated analysis would be possible with more detailed and accurate information, given limited time and data unavailability, it was still possible to make reasonable assessment to development some specific recommendations. The livelihood survey had to be conducted to gather household level income and expenditure data and focused group discussions were useful to collect qualitative information relatively quickly.
 

back to top ▲ Tradeoff Analysis of Landuse scenarios in Tripa, Western coast of Aceh, Indonesia with the FALLOW model
By ICRAF

Rachmat Mulia, Andree Ekadinata, Zuraidah Said, Yuliana C Wulan, Elok P Mulyoutami, Betha Lusiana and Meine van Noordwijk
World Agroforestry Centre, ICRAF-SEA, Bogor, West Java Indonesia

Introduction

As part of a study of land-use change in the Tripa swamps along the western coast of Aceh that serves both as orangutan habitat and as source of human livelihoods, we developed applications of the FALLOW model to 1) check our current understanding of land-use change in the areas; 2) extrapolate current trends to a ‘business as usual’ scenario; and 3) explore future change options based on various scenarios that include availability of knowledge, prices and price differentials, land-use rules that are enforced, changes in behaviour of large-scale actors and constraints on immigration.

Materials and method

FALLOW model

The FALLOW (Forest, Agroforest, Low-value Lands Or Waste?) model was designed (van Noordwijk, 2002; Suyamto et al., 2009) to simulate land-cover change at landscape level driven by farmers’ decisions on labour and land allocation. Initially constructed for simulation of a simple 10x10 cell landscape, the model can now handle input maps obtained from Landsat satellite images. The default plot size is 1 ha with possible modification depending on the objective of the study and adjustments to input parameters. The current model version is integrated with the pc-raster simulation language and a visual basic model for a user-friendly interface. The model has been used for prospecting future landscape mosaic in different regions in Indonesia, for example, Lamandau (Central Kalimantan) and Arongan Lambalek (West Aceh). A detailed description of the model is given by van Noordwijk (2002) and Suyamto et al. (2009).

Simulated areas

The Tripa coastal peat swamp forest is situated in three different districts: Kecamatan Darul Makmur, Babahrot and Kuala Batee. It has been a source of both economic and ecological prosperity for local people. In the early 1990s five large-scale oil palm estates were allocated land in the region and started operation. The estates were largely abandoned during the civil conflict in Aceh, but resumed activities after 2005 following the Aceh peace agreement and as part of the tsunami reconstruction process. Part of the Tripa swamp remained in a forest condition and still functions as orangutan habitat, on peat that in many locations exceeds 3 m depth and as such should not have been issued as concession.

Scenarios for Tripa

The simulation area is the Tripa area with its surrounding 5 km buffer zone (see figures below in the results section), where it falls within the boundaries of the Leuser Ecosystem. The initial land-cover distribution derives from the 2009 land-cover map. Table 1 below describes some possible conditions and development strategies for Tripa to be modelled under the various scenarios to be run over 30 years. The biophysical and socioeconomic parameter values used as input to the model were obtained from a study and measurement by Rahayu et al. (2010) and Mulyoutami et al. (2010) respectively.

Table 1. Scenarios developed for Tripa

No	Scenario	Description	Remarks*
1	Business As Usual (BAU)	Oil palm estates operate according to current HGU and have a right to open remaining forests inside their HGU. Local people can establish agricultural plots outside HGU. Three main local agricultural products are oil palm, cacao and paddy. An off-farm job for local people is to become a labourer in the large oil palm plantations.	Conversion of remaining forests inside HGU into oil palm plantations.
2	Patch (conservation)	Oil palm estates operate according to current HGU and agree to conserve remaining forest patches inside their HGU. This includes the 6000 ha forest that was proposed to be conserved following an AMDAL (Analisis Dampak Lingkungan) assessment.	Supporting orangutan survival by conserving remaining forests inside HGU. Other situations are the same as described in the BAU scenario.
3	Instantaneous  (ecological restoration)	All oil palm estates agree to stop operation and participate in restoring Tripa area into forest by conserving remaining forests and restoring all oil palm plots inside HGU into forests.	Instantaneous restoration of all oil palm plots inside Tripa to forests.
4	Gradual (ecological restoration)	All oil palm estates agree to conserve remaining forests inside HGU and to stop operation in old and no-longer productive oil palm as part of a gradual restoration process of Tripa area into forests.	Gradual restoration of all oil palm plots inside Tripa to forests.
5	Corridor (ecological restoration)	Establishment of two corridors linking the remaining forest patch inside Tripa to the KEL for orangutan preservation along with instantaneous restoration of all oil palm plots within the corridor (inside or outside HGUs) to forests. Existing oil palm in the HGU area but not within the corridor remains as oil palm.	The conservation value of the ‘patch’ is probably dependent on ecological connectivity with the main conservation area.

^{*No change in road and settlement distribution, market price and demand for labour per ha by the oil palm estates during the 30 years}

 

Results and Discussions

Owing to its higher economic returns, local people in the model predictions would prefer oil palm rather than the other two products. In the absence of any ‘green’ programs, this would make Tripa a fully oil-palm-dominated landscape in the BAU scenario (Fig. 1). In the gradual restoration scenario, we assumed that oil palm plots were allowed to revert to forest at the end of their production cycle (25 years of age). Therefore, all oil palm plots inside HGU had been restored to forests at the end of the 30-year simulation period. Both instantaneous and gradual restoration scenarios successfully restored all areas inside HGU into forest, but forests in the instantaneous scenario reached a higher ecological stage owing to a longer restoration period.

Figure 1 Landscape mosaic in Tripa after 30 years. Simulation of five different scenarios by the FALLOW model: A) Business As Usual (BAU); B) conservation of remaining forest (‘patch’); C) instantaneous restoration of all oil palm plantations into forests (‘instantaneous’); D) gradual restoration (‘gradual’); and E) establishment of two corridors to support orangutan preservation (‘corridor’). The total simulated area was 104 000 ha, including 40 000 ha in all HGUs combined. (Abbreviations used in the legend: set=settlement, pfor=pioneer forest, ysec=young secondary forest, osec=old secondary forest, prim=primary forest, pion=pioneer stage, early=early production stage, late=late production stage, post=post-production stage, OP=oil palm.)

In the last scenario, the northern corridor crossed existing HGUs to link to KEL and the southern one crossed the abandoned HGU (YEL Alue Bili, pers. comm.) located in the eastern part of Tripa. These corridor designs minimised the number of smallholder plots that had to change management. Both corridors, however, crossed settlements (Fig. 1E). We assumed that the affected inhabitants would be compensated and subsequently move to other settlements within the simulation area; the simulations all assumed the same total population in the landscape.

All ‘green’ scenarios produced higher carbon stock but less income compared to BAU. The largest differences were produced with the instantaneous conversion scenarios (Fig. 2).

Figure 2 Difference in annual income and annual CO₂e sequestration rate calculated for each simulation scenario for 30-year simulation over the simulated landscape in Tripa relative to the condition measured in year 2009 (i.e. income of Rp 3.5 x 106/capita or Rp 6.5 x 106/labour with a labour fraction of 0.54 from total population in Tripa) and total aboveground carbon-stock of 5.5 x 106 tonne in the landscape). The wage rate as laborer in big-scale oil palm plantations used to calculate income was Rp 1.2 x 106/month). Calculated by the FALLOW model.

 

Table 2 describes ‘economic losses’ in the landscape owing to conservation programs in comparison with what could be obtained in the forest conversion scenario (BAU). The highest loss is incurred with the instantaneous scenario owing to a thorough restoration of oil palm plantations inside HGUs. A high decrease in income is also found in the corridor scenario owing to restoration of smallholder plots into forests for orangutan preservation. The total economic losses in the landscape also represent the total ‘compensation’ that should be provided to equal income of the year 2009. If the BAU scenario is used as reference, a further 3 million USD/yr would have to be provided in new income earning opportunities. On top of these costs, the economic value of the existing rights of concessionaires would have to be compensated, while transaction and implementation costs were not covered.

Table 2. Trade-off between CO₂e sequestration rate and local people’s income in the landscape with 5 different scenarios in Tripa, calculated by the FALLOW model

Scenarios	CO2e seq. rate (106 tCO2e/yr)	DIncome (106 Rp/capita/yr)	DIncome (USD* capita/yr)	Total+ change in income (109 Rp/yr)	Total change in income across the landscape (106 USD/yr)
BAU	-0.31	0.99	107.82	27.72	3.01
Patch	0.03	-0.57	-62.46	-16.09	-1.75
Instantaneous	0.16	-2.20	-239.62	-61.73	-6.71
Gradual	0.10	-1.14	-124.32	-32.02	-3.48
Corridor	0.11	-1.82	-198.33	-51.09	-5.55

^{*Currency rate Rp 9200=USD 1; +total economic loss in the simulated area (income capita * total population). Positive value in BAU scenario means an increase in income}

 

The ‘patch’ conservation refers to the first and second ‘D’ of REDD+, while the carbon gains in the restoration scenarios refer to the ‘+’. Compensation might come from carbon reward owing to avoiding deforestation and promoting forest restoration and conservation. Table 3 describes the magnitude of such compensation for each scenario. A lower incentive (that is, a minimum 5.2 USD/tCO₂e) might be sufficient to compensate for the economic losses in the patch scenario. In the more massive conservation and restoration scenario, however, a higher average incentive is needed. In as far as restoration and protection of the area involve labour costs, part of this total compensation could come in such a form. Other elements could be investment in new employment creation activities and direct compensation for those involved in the corridor restoration.

Table 3. Compensation for economic loss owing to conservation programs obtained from reward for carbon sequestration in Tripa. The total carbon sequestration rates include avoiding carbon emission owing to conserving remaining forests inside HGUs. Calculated by the FALLOW model

Scenarios	Total carbon seq. rate (Millions tCO2e/yr)	Total decrease in income (Millions USD/yr)	Minimum carbon price (USD t/CO2e)	Carbon reward (Millions USD/yr)
Patch only	0.34	-1.75	5.2	1.75
Instantaneous restoration	0.47	-6.71	14.3	6.71
Gradual restoration	0.40	-3.48	8.7	3.51
Corridor restoration	0.41	-5.55	13.5	5.56

Owing to compensation from carbon reward, a ‘green development’ (that is, resulting in a positive change both in economic and ecological levels) could be achieved. Different conservation programs could be proposed depending on the level that was desired for the environmental prosperity of local people and orangutan. Another ‘source’ of compensation might come from a reward owing to preserving orangutan. If this occured, it is possible to suggest that local people in Tripa could receive more income by preserving forests.

 

Discussion and Conclusions

Local government and decision makers need to understand the various components involved in the calculation of trade-offs between economic and ecological aspects of development. Managing the trade-offs involves review of the overall development strategy, as land, labour, capital, knowledge and markets interact in creating economic opportunities, while the fractions of land and their spatial configuration determine the ecological outcomes. The FALLOW model can be used to measure the impact of certain development strategies on the economic and ecological prosperity of local people living in a rural landscape, but model outcomes are sensitive to parameter values and assumptions. The relative ranking of scenarios is likely to be more robust than the absolute values of the results.

The ‘conservation’ scenarios were designed to allow orangutan to survive. If the income of local people was prioritised, however, the BAU scenario that allowed expansion of oil palm plantations inside HGU provided the best option. In the ‘green’ scenario where ecology was prioritised, a better change in ecological prosperity was usually accompanied by a decrease in economic levels compared to the BAU scenario. This condition was clearly described in the conservation scenarios. This problem might be overcome, however, if a REDD mechanism, eco-tourism project or similar was applied in the conservation areas, supporting local people’s economic sustainability without destroying existing forests.

For Tripa, the range of options was considerable and involved large volumes of emission as well as substantial financial resources. At an effective farmgate carbon price of 5 USD/ tCO₂e, avoided deforestation could be compensated at a price of close to 15 USD/ tCO₂e for the ‘conservation’ plus ‘restoration’ scenarios, when seen as a package.

An issue for further debate is whether or not the USD 3 million of potential increase in local income would need to be compensated as well. According to model prediction, the difference between BAU and year 2009 was 17 000 ha of oil palm. At 57 persondays/ha/yr and a wage rate of Rp 71 000/day, this oil palm area could generate USD 7.5 million/yr. However, in the absence of oil palm development, the 17 000*57 persondays could be spent in other ways, generating income. Within the parameter value of the model, apparently 4.5 million of the USD 7.5 million could be internally compensated, leaving USD 3 million.

There is, however, a question as to what degree such opportunity would be a legal one. The oil palm concession was, at the time of issuance, in conflict with the presedential decree that peat with a depth greater than 3 m needs to be conserved. More than half the measurements of peat depth showed a depth greater than 3 m for the currently remaining forest patch. One could argue that this ‘opportunity’ for which permits exist is nevertheless illegal. It would also be against current national policies to reduce emissions and to provide a ‘greener’ image to oil palm production by stopping new forest conversion. The political and policy ramifications of this issue go beyond the remit of this report.

 

References
van Noordwijk M. 2002. Scaling trade-offs between crop productivity, carbon stocks and biodiversity in shifting cultivation landscape mosaics: the FALLOW model. Ecological Modeling 149:113–126.

Mulyoutami, E., Martini, M., Wulan, Y. C., Riswandi, K., Nasution, A., Susetyo, P.J., and Sianturi, P. 2010. Component A: Land use and human livelihoods. In: Tata HL, van Noordwijk M, eds. 2010. Human livelihoods, ecosystem services and the habitat of the Sumatran orangutan: rapid assessment in Batang Toru and Tripa. Bogor, Indonesia: World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) Southeast Asia Regional Office, pp. 8-32.

Rahayu Subekti, Oktaviani Rahayu and Hesti L. Tata. 2010. Component B: carbon stocks and tree diversity. In: Tata HL, van Noordwijk M, eds. 2010. Human livelihoods, ecosystem services and the habitat of the Sumatran orangutan: rapid assessment in Batang Toru and Tripa. Bogor, Indonesia: World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) Southeast Asia Regional Office, pp. 33-43.

Suyamto D, Mulia R, van Noordwijk M, Lusiana B. 2009. FALLOW 2.0. Manual and software. Bogor, Indonesia: World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) Southeast Asia Regional Program.
 

back to top ▲ Fair and efficient? How stakeholders view investments to avoid deforestation in Indonesia
By ICRAF

Study background

Indonesia has the highest greenhouse gas emissions from land use and land cover change of any country, the third highest overall emissions, and per capita emissions in between the level of North America and Europe. Indonesia is a prime target for the international efforts to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries (REDD). REDD is a proposed international agreement to Reduce Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation in developing countries, Research on how REDD could be implemented and achieve its goal are currently under investigation in many locations. The FERVA (Fair and Efficient REDD Value Chains Allocation) method was designed to contribute to this on-going process. In reducing emissions from deforestation, forest degradation, peatlands, and other land uses in developing countries, a major challenge is how to combine efficiency and fairness. A middle ground and combination of policy instruments is needed to actually reduce emissions and also stimulate sustainable livelihood options and development pathways.

Step in FERVA Method

FERVA engages stakeholders groups in focus group discussion, the details of which must be adjusted to fit the local context. The following is the usual sequence:

Main result - Examples of FERVA results:

Steps 1–3

Central Kalimantan Province still has a large area of tropical forest and peat land but also suffers high rates of conversion and emissions, making it a strong candidate for REDD. The provincial government has expressed interest and started administrative arrangements to prepare for REDD implementation. However, there is no clarity yet on how REDD targets will be achieved through changes in emission practices (efficiency) and rewards for those guarding the forest (fairness). In a FERVA workshop in Palangkaraya in March 2009, about 30 participants from governmental institutions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and universities discussed the issues.

The local need for both efficiency and fairness was clear (table 3). After hearing both types of arguments, everyone was keen to balance the focus on efficiency, for the sake of a market mechanism and enhanced fund availability, and on fairness, based on a moral point of view of the people who already preserve the forest. A need therefore exists for tools to negotiate allocations based on fairness and efficiency. The participants recognized the diversity of perspectives and concepts. Stakeholders from the local community and regional government tended to focus more on fairness, while potential REDD investors and brokers tended to place higher priority on efficiency.

Table 1: Fairness and efficiency in group discussion at Palangkaraya, Central Kalimantan

Fairness group

Efficiency group

1.     Benefits should go not only to the central government but also to the regional government and, first and foremost, to the local community at the natural resource. 2.     Management must be collaborative and participatory, involving every stakeholder in the future REDD implementation area. 3.     Ecosystem benefit through sustainable preservation is essential. 4.     Avoiding leakage of awarded incentives requires that fairness be observed. 5.     A conservation area in good condition faces a low risk of forest degradation, plantation failure or land-use change. 6.     Forests will be preserved if REDD incentives are distributed fairly. 7.     Replacing opportunity lost to forest preservation requires fairness. 8.     The attitude of future generations hinges on fairness.

1.     The need that REDD effectiveness be visible demands that schemes be implemented in areas suffering rapid deforestation, where incentives can contribute to cutting carbon emissions. 2.     Emission reduction is a free bonus derived from the cost of forest preservation, thereby achieving additionality. 3.     Efficiently targeted REDD implementation will be fair in the end.

 

Step 4 - 8

In the Palangkaraya, Central Kalimantan, workshop, stakeholders were pessimistic regarding the expected distribution of REDD funds. Transaction costs (the top six items, from ‘Leakage control’ to ‘Salesmanship’) were perceived to be very high, at 80–90%, and payment to the local actors (‘Protecting carbon’ and ‘sustainable livelihoods’) was very low, at 10–20%. Participants desired that the money should be distributed at least equally between transaction costs and local actors.

Reflection on methodology
FERVA is based on ‘focus group discussions’ with different stakeholder groups. Details and examples are flexible to adjust to local contexts. A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) methodology was used to facilitate rapid gathering of information, stimulate effective discussion to crosscheck information, and build partnerships among stakeholders. This method is not for collecting the quantitative data but it is more for guiding the stakeholder to make a consensus on the issue of fairness and efficiency in the REDD scheme was principal to successful implementation at all sites.
 

back to top ▲ Aren, ‘the wild’ inside agroforestry system - A case study on Assessment of Agroforestry Practices and Technology
By ICRAF

Endri Martini, Elok Mulyoutami, Arif Rahmanulloh, Laxman Joshi and James Roshetko

Introduction

Aren (Arenga pinnata, syn. Arenga saccharifera) is a large palm belonging to the order Caryotoideae, Arecaceae family. Normally, Aren is found in tropical Asian landscapes growing under full sun, in well drained soils with access to abundant water (usually near rivers. Aren grows best at elevations of 500-800 masl, with precipitation above 1200 mm/year, a rainy season of 7-10 months and average temperature 25ºC.

Sugarpalm or aren (Arenga pinnata) was chosen as the key species discussed in this study because of its significant contribution to the livelihood of the local people in the Batang Toru Sumatran orang utan habitat in North Sumatra, Indonesia. Aren has potential role in environmental conservation. Domestication efforts of Aren in many areas in Indonesia is still limited (Mogea et al, 1991). Hence, this study was conducted to analyze potential domestication effort that can support aren’s role for livelihood and biodiversity existence in the landscape of the Batang Toru Sumatran Orang utan habitat.

 

RAFT as a framework to scope technology intervention

Rapid Appraisal of Agroforestry practices and Technology (RAFT) is a tool that was developed in response to the need in improving the tangible productivity of an agroforest land use types as well as its intangible environmental services in a multi functional mosaic landscape with trees. In RAFT, agroforestry practices is defined as a traditional system that was applied and improved from many generations, and also introduced system that was improved by combining different types of traditional systems. Local user’s perspectives are used as the main source of information in RAFT for identifying the specific definition of agroforestry practices in an area. Specific terms for specific structure of agroforestry will help observer to understand and analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the utilization of woody perennials species that occur in an agroforestry systems, and to acknowledge the opportunities for and threats to its further enhancement.

In detail, RAFT steps to define tree domestication in an agroforestry system are:

1. Analyze and classify type of domestication efforts occur in an agroforest land use type.
2. Initiate comprehensive data collection on input and output streams in various phases of the lifecycle of an agroforest system.
3. Appraise strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats jointly with the main stakeholders to plan for applied research and development support. At the end of RAFT process, an analysis of strength, weakness, opportunities and threats (SWOT) will provide a good way to do participatory synthesize the result with local stakeholders.

Field activities were undertaken by using these following steps :

(i) desktop review; (ii) focus group discussion; (iii) individual interview with some key stakeholder; (iv) transect walk, and market visits. These research activities were conducted by a multidisciplinary team consists of a silviculturist ecologist, a natural resource economist, and a natural resource anthropologist within two weeks periods of time.

 

Batang Toru, forest landscape and as an orangutan habitat

Western Block of Batang Toru Forest landscape provides habitat for at least 400 Sumatran orangutans in the most southern part of North Sumatra with approximately 105,000 ha. The elevation wereelevation was ranging from 200-1500 masl and annual precipitation 1500-3000 mm. The landscape is dominated by medium to high altitude dipterocarp forest, which is an ideal habitat for Sumatran Orangutan (Pongo abelii). This area is known as one of the 9 habitat unit for Sumatran orang utan conservation (Singleton I, Wich S.A. & Griffiths M. 2008). Batang Toru covers 3 districts: North Tapanuli (Tapanuli Utara), Central Tapanuli (Tapanuli Tengah) and South Tapanuli (Tapanuli Selatan).

Practices and technologies on sugarpalm based agroforestry

Fundamental question in defining agroforestry technology intervention is on how to enhance profitability and environmental resilience of sugar palm production system. It is also important to consider how to minimize risk of the farmers in losing their source of livelihood by maintaining the systems for longer term sustainable harvest. Hence, defining typology of existing aren based agroforestry system considering importance level of aren as source of livelihood in different community, biophysical criteria, and socio cultural aspects of the community.

Aren, though it’s not dominant, it’s considered important for local livelihood of people in Batang Toru landscape. Brown sugar, as produced from the sap, contributes 50% of weekly income for producer families. Producers live near the forest and have easy access to firewood for processing sap into sugar. Aren has been used by the Batak tribe (dominant tribe in the area) in their traditional customary such as for producing traditional alcoholic beverage (tuak) that used in some traditional occasions in Batak tribe. It’s contributeIt’s contributing 40-50% of weekly income of producer families. Tuak is commonly drank daily by community members, who gathered in Tuak café that also known as Lapo. Thatch (‘ijuk’) could providesprovide yearly income that contributes less than 10% of yearly income of Aren farmers. Thatch can be harvested a maximum of 2 times a year. Aren fruits or Kolang-kaling is usually harvested once a year. It’s contributeIt’s contributing 20% of yearly income of Aren farmers. The demand for kolang-kaling is greatest during the annual Ramadhan holiday. The primary markets are on both Sumatra and Java. Moreover, Aren is common in the area and contributes to the diets of orangutans and other wildlife.

Aren in Batang Toru is common in mixed gardens, agroforests and intensive rubber gardens under a range of domestication intensities from natural regeneration (wild), to enrichment planting, and planted. Some community are preferred to maintain sugarpalm garden intensively in producing sugar and others are only put sugar palm production as side income (Table 1). On high altitude and sloping land (0-8%), sugar, sugar palm garden are maintain more intensive than in low altitude. It is because sugar palm tree on high altitude may produce higher than in the low part, and itsit’s subsequently effected on livelihood options. Cultural and religion aspect plays important role on the type of products from sugar palm. On the dominant Moslem community, alcoholic beverage or locally called as tuak is not common, then they only produced the sap for sugar.

 

Table 1. Typology of Aren domestication

Domestication intensity	Village	Main products	Tree propagation	Tree regeneration in gardens	Maintenance	Land use types
Type 1 Naturally growth for sugar production	Paranjulu	Palm sugar	None	Natural regeneration	None	Mixed gardens, Rubber agroforests, Intensive rubber gardens
Type 2 Domesticated	Pagaran tulason	Palm sugar	Propagate seedlings (wild seed); Select and plant wild seedling	Planted at regular spacing (8m x 8m)	Remove thatch to stimulate trunk growth.	Degraded lands, Rubber agroforests, Intensive rubber gardens, Mixed gardens
Type 3 Naturally growth for tuak production	Huta gur gur	Alcoholic beverage (tuak)	None	Natural regeneration	None	Mixed gardens, Rubber agroforests, Intensive rubber gardens
Type 4 Naturally growth aren in farmland	Lumban lobu	Palm sugar and  Thatch	Collect and plant wild seedlings	Enrichment planting	Remove thatch to stimulate trunk growth.	Mixed gardens Rubber agroforests; Intensive rubber gardens

Input and output relation

As seen in Table 2, Profitability assessment indicates higher returns to labor (under low management intensity) for tuak production from natural regeneration based systems. Although Aren has significant economic value for local livelihoods, very few farmers intensify Aren cultivation in term of tree planting and land use modification in these type of system. This is due to the market availability that only reaches on local level.

Table 2. Profitability assessment on four Aren systems

Scenario	Location	Land area	Tappable aren	NPV	Return to labor	Labor
						Establishment	Tapping	sugar  processing
		ha	unit	000 Rp/ha	Rp/ps-day	ps-day/ha	ps-day/ha/year	ps-day/year
Type 1	Paranjulu	2	9	6,964	136,661	n.a	38	6
Type 2	Pagaran tulason	1	12	9,337	46,975	40	51	6
Type 3	Hutagurgur	1	5	11,353	349,481	n.a	24	n.a
Type 4	Lumban lobu	1	10	3,045	35,849	49	42	5

Farmers’ preference for ‘wild Aren’ is in line with orangutan conservation efforts through protection of natural forests in the area. Aren in all systems contributes to the diets of orangutan and other wildlife in the area. Reliance on wildlife for Aren regeneration supports appreciation for natural processes.

Strengths and Weaknesses versus Opportunities and Threats

SWOT analysis with considering some bottlenecks (refer to RAFT guideline) that were identified in the adoption process of agroforest practices and technologies is presented on table below. Profitability analysis shows tuak production can give better return to labor, however due to low market demand, that only fulfilling local area, farmers would only need no more than 5 trees per household to produce tuak. Producing sugarpalm is challenging, however due to high workload with uncertain price condition, this alternative only attract few farmers who have good capability on tapping and limited land. Important factor to produce sugarpalm is fuelwood, thatfuelwood, which also contribute on high work load. With some alternative on fuel wood under mixed garden system would give many advantagemany advantages for farmers to decrease the workload as well as diversify their livelihood source. Meanwhile, aren within mixed garden systems in sloping land has high conservation values. Limited tree domestication efforts as applied in Batang Toru allow aren trees’s environmental services contribute to the existence of other biota in the area.

Table 3. SWOT analysis for Aren system

Type	Strengths	Weaknesses	Opportunities	Threat	What needs to be improved?
Type 3	Culturally embedded with local livelihoods	Local market orientation Tuak always relate with criminal	No specify	Market restrictions	Alternative products from mixed garden system
Type 1	Medium production Low cost of maintenance	Limited awareness of and access to quality planting material Garden location far from the villages Labor shortage due to high load of work	Good market opportunities	Price fluctuation	Alternative fuel wood inside mixed garden system; efficiecnt cooking method & stove
Type 2	Medium production Low labor necessity	High cost of sugar production Limited awareness of and access to quality planting material	Good market opportunities	Price fluctuation	Alternative fuel wood inside mixed garden system
Type 4	International market orientation Non seasonal production Low maintenance	Low quality of thatch	High market demand	Restricted access to markets	Quality of thatch processing to fulfill market requirements

RAFT and Aren: is it lead to concrete solution?

Study on Aren indicated that technology intervention would important on selecting some woody tree species important for fuel wood under mixed garden system. Domestication on seed selection and improving quality planting materials were also essential to improve the productivity of aren. Aren’s farmers in Batang Toru landscape would need some extra attention on accessing the appropriate technology to produce high quality planting materials.

RAFT as a tool in assessing technology and practices in agroforestry isa practice in agroforestryis an efficient approach to define the priority options for technology intervention. As it also considering multi aspect within the analysis the utilization of trees for local livelihoods, RAFT implementation could also help to minimize risk of the farmers in losing their source of livelihood by maintaining the systems for long term sustainable harvest. However, to give more details on what kind of technology that would appropriate for the farmers would need further assessment or somehow would depend on available document or experimentation result.

 

back to top ▲ Hot Spot of Confusion: Land Tenure Insecurity in Ex-Mega Rice Area of Central Kalimantan, Indonesia
By Gamma Galudra, ICRAF

Study Background

Key issues in the REDD debate on carbon rights are: (1) who has, or can claim, the right to sell carbon or ask for co-investment in emission reduction efforts; and (2) who has, or can claim, the right to receive payments for avoided damage. The concept of ‘carbon rights’, however, is not easily understood in its interactions with existing or emerging rights, authorities and power over land use decisions. These key issues demand clarity and procedural justice on resolving the ‘legal basis’ of land tenure and governance over forested land and resources.

It was argued that clarifying the ‘legal’ basis of the contesting claims often stumbles on contradictions and shifting laws and policies, different interpretation and evolving of local property rights and rights of customary people. Governments change laws and regulations to redefine the legal rights belonging to local people and state bodies with respect to forest. The legal acts affect the distribution of actual powers around forest. Changes in laws and regulations often translate into corresponding changes and claims in property rights and forest use practices. The shifted policies have initiated the dispute of ownership, rights and tenure of forest land and resources.

Therefore, to clarify these contesting claims, the study was being implemented to Ex-Mega Rice Area in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. The Ex-Mega Rice Area covers an area of nearly one and half million ha of peatland. The site is a recognized hotspot of emissions, with a complex history of planned and spontaneous land use change as their cause, within a peat dome environment that provides strong linkages between water tables and associated fire risk and requires the integration of management on a scale considerably above the village level. The rivers provide the primary access for people, who use the river banks as places for temporary settlement and the surrounding area for a swidden (shifting cultivation) system. Throughout history, the people in the area have associated with the river rather than the land and moved upstream or downstream in response to security threats and trading opportunities. With the rise and fall of legal and illegal logging operations in 1990s and 2000s, employment opportunities continue to shift.

In the case study presented here of one of the recognized hotspots of carbon emissions in Indonesia, we found that the ‘legal’ basis of contesting claims were found to use current contradictions and inconsistencies of laws and multi-sector policies, interacting with differences of interpretation, shifting power relationship of disputants and articulation of local property rights and rights of customary people. The article examines the discursive strategies in the struggle over property rights in Central Kalimantan ex-Mega Rice Area and traces changes and development in justification for this influence in the face of REDD implementation.

Shifting Regime, Shifted Policies: Interplay of Interests

The preceding account of the peat bogs being subject to ineffective policies may demonstrate that the area is not only a hot spot for CO₂ emissions, but also a hot spot for conflict in the triangle between local communities, local government and central government actors. The historical contest between policies and institutions transformed the pre-colonial land tenure system into one with a high degree of land tenure insecurity for all actors in the Central Kalimantan ex-Mega Rice Project area. The current impact of the policy changes is confusion regarding who actually rules the land and is entitled to issue rights to the land.

In the past, the area was under the control of the adat institution, which allocated several rights to local communities to access and use the forested land. The allocation rights were respected and recognized by the Dutch Colonial Government and also by the new republic. However, the rights were gradually changed subsequently, especially when forest concessions began to operate in the area. Several policies in the 1970s and 1980s reduced the authority of many adat institutions, so that the concessions could operate more easily. The Ministry of Forestry lays its claim based on 1970s’ investigation by the Agrarian Affairs Office. This office investigated the status of customary land-use rights in Central Kalimantan and concluded that customary institutions had already diminished, leaving local people with vague or without land use rights. The government did not realize that many local communities still held on to adat rights and had upheld adat institutional authority until this time. Operators of the forest concessions at the time had the power to remove any adat land-use rights and claims.

The impact on the area was that many local communities saw new opportunities to challenge the existing land access regime and joined with the forest concessions to open up and cut the forest. Many communities then constructed small drainage systems to transport the logs from the forest, consequently obtaining individual and collective rights from such work, which certainly changed the land tenure situation. Prior to this, many communities only had ownership rights that extended not more than five kilometers from their settlements, but the drainage works extended land ownership much farther than this and certainly changed the previous land tenure system.

The most destructive period was after the cessation of the ex-Mega Rice Project. The land use practices of many communities were destroyed by this project and ironically, no compensation was given at that time simply because the government believed that the communities did not hold any land-use rights over the land within the area. However, when the ex-Mega Rice Project was halted and the government tried to give ‘fair’ compensation to communities for their lost land-use rights, the boundaries that identified where the rights had existed had been destroyed by the project, resulting in difficulties for the government and the communities to resolve the land-use rights issues and ownership. Many land claims by the communities increased in size each year and some of them had obtained a formal notification of land-use (surat keterangan tanah) from the heads of villages. Even though the local government had acknowledged the existence of adat land-use rights in 1999 and 2008, recognition was never converted into practice.

The confusion over who ruled the ex-Mega Rice Project area was also evident among policy makers at the local government (regency and provincial government) and the central government levels. In 1999, the government handed the ex-Mega rice Project management rights over to the provincial government, who used their newly acquired power to allocate areas to mining and oil palm concessions. In 2003, a provincial regulation was issued on provincial spatial planning, which legally supported the Regency to use and allocate forest lands for oil palm plantations and mining explorations. After the failure of rice, oil palm production in ‘already’ deforested lands was seen as the best way to fuel the local economy and raise local government revenue. Around 369 000 has of the (ex) Mega Rice Area were assigned to 37 oil palm concessions, while about 41 536 has were allocated for 60 coal mining concessions. Interestingly, both permits overlapped causing confusion to concessionaires.

The provincial government claimed scientific support for its position with reference to a study by the Agricultural Research and Development Office in 1998, showing that around 327 853 has and 345 340 has of the ex-Mega Rice Project are considered suitable for oil palm cultivation and rubber plantations, respectively. This study certainly influenced the provincial government policy, and was clearly in line with its interests. Besides scientific support, the Provincial Government uses the MoF’s Note No 778/VIII-KP/2000 to argue their ‘legal claim’ over the exploitation of the ex-MRP for oil palm and mining concessions. The Note provides legal basis for the Provincial Government to convert state forest lands into other land use system, as long as conversion is accompanied with spatial developments plans. This is why the Provincial Government issued the 2003 spatial planning regulation.

However, the government then took back these rights in 2007. The Central government issued MoF Note, which superseded the previous Note, and demanded seizure of all concessions permits issued by the Provincial Government since year 2000. The Note also deemed the 2003 spatial planning regulation of the Provincial Government illegal. Confusion reigned as much of this land had been already allocated by local government to mining and oil palm concessions since as early as 2004, with some areas under active operation. Then, in 2008, the central government allocated land for conservation and rehabilitation purposes. To date, there is still considerable uncertainty on the best means to settle the confusion over management and allocation rights. The land-use allocation to oil palm plantation triggered potential conflict with the local communities. The conflict worsened as much of the concession land had not only been planted with oil palm, but it also had been distributed to people from outside the villages (migrants).

Reflection on the Methodology

There are several points that we think as part of the method’s reflection:

1. Land tenure conflicts are outcomes of competition over power, ideology and local history, leading to changing patterns of inequality. Clearly, this means that tenure is not only about institution, but also about the process by which institutions are created. The latter refers to forest governance.
2. The challenge for an empirical analysis is to understand the complexity of land tenure dynamics, particularly when rules within the tenure system evolve as many actors become involved, either because of government intervention over land access arrangements and increasing control by local authorities, or market opportunities and economic reasons.
3. Tenure conflict should also be concerned with land security beyond the legal aspects. There is a hold-premise that a legal land title can be equated with secure land rights. This hold-premise led to a focus only on legal aspects and neglected the complex interweaving of the social, economic and political sources of land tenure security and insecurity.
4. Negotiation and enforcement of rights and claims become the central focus of the discussion when the importance of power relations is acknowledged. As a result, land use and land tenure turn into a complex arena of overlapping and competing social and political relations. Ambiguities and several competing normative orders may co-exist, and different groups and institutions compete over the jurisdiction to settle disputes and set norm. As such, competing tenure claims must be assessed in relation to the capacity of the actors to put rights into effect.
    

back to top ▲ The Last Remnants of Mega Biodiversity in West Java and Banten, Indonesia
By Gamma Galudra, ICRAF

Introduction

The Government of Indonesia (GoI) declared Mount Halimun-Salak Area to be a national park in 2003 based on ecosystem richness and hydrological function. Administratively, it is located in West Java and Banten Provinces within three regencies (namely Bogor, Sukabumi and Lebak) covering an area of 113,357 hectares. The national park itself can be reached within four hours of journey from Jakarta, capital of Indonesia, toward the interior of Rangkasbitung City, capital of Lebak District.

When the government changed the status of Mount Halimun-Salak into a national park, the people living within its boundaries saw this as infringement on their land rights. Several signposts of the national park were erected surrounding its boundaries, causing concern among the people. According to the government officials, the people have never had legal rights to settle and farm the land. Fearful from being evicted, on 16th-18th October 2003, the people from 31 villages within the national park held a meeting in Bogor and refuted the government’s declaration. To support their resistance and claim over their land rights, the people set up a local organization (RMI, 2003). These resistances by local people and the refusal of government to recognize the local people rights had been reported by many national and local newspapers (Kompas, 2003a).

Even though many institutions tried to solve these conflicts through negotiations, none of them has been successfully resolved to date. These conflicts became worse in early 2008 as the Regency of Lebak pleaded to the national legislative (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat) to exclude 15 000 hectares of designated national park land. The district’s leader used several laws and policies as a basis to claim land within the designated national park. One of the failures to settle these conflicts is that none of those institutions studied the stakeholders’ perceived legal claims toward the national park land. These claims may be influenced by their perception or understanding on laws or caused by the conflicting of different laws and policies.

 

What Lies Beneath: Competing Claims on Forest Access and Ownership

The ‘legal’ claim of the Forestry Department to designate Mount Halimun-Salak area was based on forest gazettement and delineation of forest during the Dutch Colonial Period. Within the period of 1906-1939, the Dutch colonial government had managed to finalize the gazettement process and designate nearly 50 000 ha of Mount Halimun-Salak area as state forest land. These gazettement processes continued during the Japanese Occupation and after Independence Period. In conclusion, from 1280 km, nearly 1170 km of Halimun-Salak area had been delineated and gazetted since the Dutch Colonial until today. Within this gazettement, many local communities’ and crop-estate plantations’ land had been excluded from the forest land. This fact was used by the Department of Forestry as a legal claim for Halimun-Salak designation.

Unlike other local government regents, the Lebak Regent challenges the Forestry Department’s claim. The Lebak Regent believes that around 15 000 ha of the national park should be under the state forest land. He requests to exclude this land in Lebak Regent for mining, plantation and infrastructure development. The Forestry Department feared that this request will have serious negative ecological and hydrological impacts including significant reduction of the watershed buffer area and loss important block of forest habitat for endangered species, like Javan hawk-eagle, Javan leopard and Javan gibbon.

Just like the Forestry Department’s claim, the Lebak Regent’s claim is based also on historical fact during the Dutch Colonial Period. Before the Dutch Colonial government conducted forest gazettements within Halimun Salak area, many local people had used the area for shifting cultivation. The Dutch Government tried to control this shifting cultivation through several government regulations like Government Decree 1896, Government Decree No. 6/1900 and Government Decree No. 8/1909. Nevertheless, these government regulations did not address the legal rights and tenure security for shifting cultivators on their land. The Resident of Banten took an initiative by legalizing their land through Resident Decree No. 10453/7/1924. This decree allowed the cultivators to farm their lands based on rent right with unlimited period, but with restricted area. Furthermore, it gave an authority to village leaders to allocate and distribute the land to the shifting cultivators. Since 1901 to 1925, the Banten Residency had distributed about 101 140 ha of land for shifting cultivation. This decree certainly provided legal tenure security for the shifting cultivators to farm their land.

When the Dutch Forest Service delineate and gazette the area as state forest area, the Forest Service did not exclude the designated shifting cultivators’ land from the gazettement map. The map that the current Forest Department used does not recognize the local communities’ land that was previously legally protected by the Banten Residency at that time. This historical fact was used by the Lebak Regent to claim that the legitimacy of forest gazettement and delineation is weak. Therefore, it should not be used to claim the area as national park.

Beside of this competing claim among the government’s layers, the local communities claim to use and access the national park land. Their claim is not derived from legal aspect, but related to local people’s socio-culture interaction to the forest. The local communities claim the designated national park land based on their ancestors’ land rights or customary rights. They claimed that they have opened and cultivated this area for shifting cultivation since 1920s. Others claimed that this area has been used and accessed since 1940s. These shifting cultivators, called as kasepuhan, claimed themselves as descendants from Pajajaran Kingdom and ancestor of a one elite army of the kingdom. They practices their shifting cultivation based on their ancestry’s ways of live by using forest farming area, ngahuma. They also frequently move their home from area to another area, looking for uga lebak cawane, the promised land by their ancestors. However, their access was closed by the Dutch Government in early 1930s; and their shifting cultivation land was considered legally as abandon land. The Dutch Government’s interpretation was based on state domain of Agrarian Law 1870 and being used to interpret state forest zone definition that all land that could not be proven to be owned (individually or communally) by villagers (i.e. land that was not currently under tillage or that had lain fallow for more than three years) was the property of the state. At that time, the fallow period in this area was between 6-7 years so therefore; it would not legally fit into individual/communal land ownership.

When the situation began chaotic, the local communities began to reclaim the area. A report by the government in Lebak District and Sukabumi District in 1955 showed that around 1 576 ha of state forest zone in Mount Halimun-Salak have been converted to dwellings and farming system by 2 546 households. The report also stated that this conversion was based on villagers’ claim that the area previously was belonged to their ancestor’ shifting cultivation land, before it was brought by the Dutch Colonial Government as state forest zone. A study in Mekarsari Village, Lebak District have reported similar situation. Another recent study in 2006 in Bogor District found also the local people’s reclaiming based on their ancestors’ shifting cultivation land during the Independence Period and during the Reformation Period.

Unfortunately, there is no conclusive study on how many people have claim within this national park land and how many hectares of national park lands are being claimed by them. A survey by communities’ leader reveals that around 8 000 ha of land within the national park are being claimed as ancestor land. Another report from RMI shows that around 9 520 ha of national park lands are being claimed by the shifting cultivators as their ancestor’s land. Yet, either the survey or the report only surveys two kasepuhan groups, while eleven kasepuhan groups surrounding the national park have not yet been assessed.

 

Reflection on the Methodology

Abandon land, or waste land, is one of many objects of land disputes. Definition of abandon land, derived from colonial heritage, has led to the understanding that this land is free from land claims and rights. However, this is not true. The method found that definition of wasteland should be clearly understood and defined based on local laws and customs.
 

back to top ▲ Monitoring and Inventory of Trees at Permanent Plot of Dipterocarp Forest 30 Years after Forest Fire in Wanariset-Samboja, East Kalimantan
By Botany Division, Research Center For Biology (LIPI) and ICRAF

Introduction
Forest of East Kalimantan province is one of the important remaining tropical in the world. It is the richest mixed dipterocarp forest with high species diversity in Malesia (Whitmore, 1986; Philips et al., 1994). The genus Shorea is one of the most important dipterocarps with high species number, where the number of species amount to 267 or 60% of the total dipterocarp species, making Kalimantan the center of distribution and many of them are endemics, Ashton (1982). The National Biological Institute, now known as Research Center for Biology-LIPI During the periods of 1979-1981 was concerned with a basic descriptive account of the structure and floristic composition of a 10,5 ha permanent plots in East Kalimantan Wanariset-Samboja. It was intended for use by various futures studies in order to provide a permanent base for long term study of forest dynamics and floristic changes. The study area is located within a 504 ha research forest managed by the Wanariset (Field Research Station) of Balai Penelitian Teknologi Perbenihan (BPTP) of the Forest Department at Samboja, Kutai Kartanegara District. The study showed that Wanariset forest had a high species diversity as indicated by the high species richness. Based the inventory of trees with DBH ≥ 10 cm, before forest fire, recorded 553 species of 192 genera in 62 Families, represented by 5847 individuals (Kartawinata et al, 2008). The two leading families in terms of number of species were Myrtaceae and Lauraceae while the most important families were Dipterocarpaceae and Euphorbiaceae. Furthermore Shorea laevis (a dipterocarp species) and Pholidocarpus majadum (a palm) were recorded as the most prominent species occurring here and were two of the ten leading species.

Today, 30 years after forest fires shown that forest structure and species composition has changed. The heavy fires in 1983 consisted of forest land area up to 3.5 million ha in East Kalimantan and also the forest fired in 1994 and1998 had a negative impact on the structure and composition of Wanariset forest species (Simbolon, 2000). Shorea laevis and Shorea ovalis, two dipterocarp species a fairly dominant before the fire in the current 1979-1981 period but at now the number of individuals and regeneration decreased dramatically. Instead of secondary species such as Macaranga spp, Ficus spp and Vernonia arborea grown fastly and abundantly after fired. It was noted that forest recovery was not only affected by burning but Also by environmental changes resulting from fire (Simbolon et al. 2005). This report will provide a brief description of forest dynamics over a period of 30 years, particularly concerning changes in species composition, mortality and growth rate.

Study sites and methods

Wanariset Forest Research is located ± 38 km direction Balikpapan to Samarinda (Figure 1). The location for monitoring was situated ± 1.5 km to the west of the intersection Semoi. In 1979-1981 a block of 150 x 700m (10.5 ha) was set up and then it was divided into 10 x 10 m subplots. The geographic position of the plot has been know from GPS and based on Simbolon 2005 (Tabel 1). The 150 m width of the plot was stretching roughly from East to West and the 700m length was running from South to North. In each subplots, all trees with DBH (Diameter at Breast Height) ≥ 5 cm were mapped, numbered with aluminum tags, identified and measured for DBH. The study-site covered a lowland dipterocarp forest on dryland consisted of undulating to flat terrain and small patches of the seasonally swampy forest. For research activities currently carried out at 150 x 120m² plots (1.8 ha), following the re-measurement in 2003. In each subplot, all the trees with DBH ≥ 5 cm was recorded, we collected the voucher of the measured plants for identification purposes. The plants were measured diameter at breast height, given the number of aluminum plate, total-height, free of branches height, canopy area and mapped the location of its position in each sub-plot 10 x 10 m².

Table 1. Geografic position of the research plot at line 21-32 of Wanariset forest

^{Source: Simbolon, 2003.}

Figure 1. Map of study sites in Wanariset forest, East Kalimantan
^{Source: Simbolon, 2003}

Result and Discussion

Species composition
Results of the inventory of trees (DBH ≥ 10 cm) and saplings (DBH 2 to 9.9 cm) in 120 x 150 m² plot (1.8 ha), the total number of individuals recorded in 2525. Of the total number of individuals, 115 of whom suffered so that is still growing mortality was recorded in 2410, consists of 1097 trees (DBH ≥ 10 cm) and 1313 saplings (DBH <10 cm). Compared with the number of individuals in 2003 (diameter ≥ 5 cm), number of individuals in 2011 seems to have changed, there was an increase of about 9%. Similarly, when viewed individual trees with a diameter ≥ 10 cm showed a greater amount (Table 2). Line 30, 31 and 32 is a line with a high density of tree. Line is 1/3 their area of swamp which relatively little experience fire.

Table 2. The number of individual trees based on diameter classes from 1981-2011.

Table 3. Number of Individuals, Basal area year 1981, 2003 and 2011 in lanes 21-32 of permanent plots Wanariset

Constituent species composition seen from the number of species in the plots with the same area seems to experience a decrease when compared to the forest conditions in 1981 and 2003. The number of species in 1981 recorded 268 species, in 2003 (238 species) and 2011 (230 species). However, in this report is not all evidence collected specimens were identified, estimated at only about 90% can be identified to species. Family Euphorbiaceae was recorded as the most members of its kind (37), followed by Myrtaceae (22) Rubiaceae (17) and Moraceae (15). Most of species Euphorbiaceae, Rubiaceae and Moraceae are secondary species (pioneers), its grown fastly. Species of Euphorbiaceae are reported to have many species which are spread in various types of tropical forest in Malesia (Whitmore, 1984). At dipterocarp forests of Wanariset although there were more dominant in the basal area, but the Euphorbiaceae have a larger number of individuals (Kartawinata et al. 1981). Generally members of the species of family Euphorbiaceae often found growing in disturbed forest areas as well as in stages of succession in the region especially in the areas of primary forest canopy openings. The most common species of Euphorbiaceae based on the number of individuals and spreading in the forests such as Macaranga gigantea (264 trees), Macaranga hypoleuca (64 trees) and Macaranga triloba (33 trees). Macaranga gigantea is a species found in almost all sub-plots, especially in the slope area that is dry and has a pretty good regeneration after fire. On the other hand Macaranga hypoleuca, Macaranga triloba and Croton laevifolius spreading often found in a swamp area that was inundated and the damage after fire not very heavy. Vernonia arborea (Asteraceae) is a species that occupy the second largest number of individuals (205 trees) with a total basal area of 3.70 m². This species in 1981 was not found and after fire its quite abundant and spreading around of the ridge and slope areas. Based on data collection in 2003 was recorded 219 tree species with a total basal area 3.01 m². This indicates a period of 8 years (2003-2011) there was increased the basal area although the number of individuals decreased. Several of other species with relatively large number of individuals is the Artocarpus anysophyllus (109 trees) and Peronema canescens (83 trees). Species with a large number of individuals can be regarded as a common species of forest Wanariset today.

The number of basal area in 1981 (before fire) has a higher value compared with 2003 and 2011 (Table 3). Total basal area of 54.3 m² was recorded in 1981 from 1067 individu, the year 2003, total basal area 37.57 m² from 2302 individu and 2011 basal area 46.04 m² from 2410 individu. This showed that the condition of the forest before the fire (primary forest) consisted of many big trees, although only low on number individual. Instead the current forest conditions have a greater number of individuals and generally consists of small trees and that most of secondary species. The trees are the result of the succession after the fire.

Dipterocarpaceae have total basal area 13.06 m² in 1981, it was the most dominant families, followed by Arecaceae and Lauraceae 4.41 m² and 3.99 m² (Table 4). In that period, based on the amount of basal area, family Dipterocarpaceae dominated by species Shorea laevis, Shorea ovalis and Dipterocarpus cornutus. After the fire based on the results of the census of 2003 and 2011 population of Shorea laevis (1 tree) and Shorea ovalis (2 trees) reduced dramatically while Dipterocarpus cornutus relatively still can survive after fire (14 trees). Basal area values saw that the Family Arecaceae generally dominated by species Pholidocarpus majadum with total basal area is quite large and spreading often found in swampy areas, while for the family Lauraceae that have a high value of basal area is Eusyderoxylon zwageri.

Table 4. Number of Individual (IN) and basal area (BA) from each family in the period 1981-2011

Forest structure
One of indicators to provide explanation of the forest structure is tree diameter class. Based on the distribution of diameter classes shows that the greatest value found in the individual trees are small (<20 cm). Distribution of diameter classes is thus a feature of tropical forest with diverse stages of age and type of plant constituent. Table 5 shows several types with the largest number of individuals who describe these species have good regeneration process. The species has a good regeneration process, among others, Macaranga gigantea, Vernonia arborea, Artocarpus anysophyllus, Diospyros borneensis, Macaranga hypoleuca and Monocarpia marginalis. On the other hand some large tree species found in the plot, but the relatively small number of individuals (Table 6). Based on the profile diagram seen a few trees sticking out (emergent trees) such as species Pholidocarpus majadum, Neesia synandra and Dipterocarpus cornutus. For Dipterocarpus cornutus did not reflected in the profile diagrams as there are in other sub-plots (Figure 3 &4).

Table 5. Several species of small diameter trees <20 cm and the number of individuals.
 

Table 6. Several species of large trees with a diameter of over 40.0 cm.

Figure 2. Plan monitoring plots (lines 21-32) in Wanariset research forest, East Kalimantan

Figure 3. Profile diagram of line 26, sub-plots 7-11 in the research plots Wanariset-Samboja, East Kalimantan in 2011.
^{Notes: 1. Antocephalus chinensis, 2. Aporosa sp., 3. Artocarpus sp., 4. Baccaurea sp., 5. Cananga odorata, 6. Croton laevifolius,7. Diospyros bornensis, 8. Drypetes kikir, 9. Eusideroxylon zwageri, 10. Ficus variegata, 11. Glochidion sp., 12. Horsfieldia irya, 13. Knema latericea,14. Pholidocarpus majadum, 15. Macaranga triloba, 16. Macaranga sp., 17. Macaranga conifera, 18. Macaranga hypoleuca, 19. Myristica sp., 20. Neesia synandra, 21. Parkia speciosa, 22. Peronema canescens, 23. Pternandra galeata, 24. Santiria sp., 25. Shorea johorensis, 26. Shorea leprosula, 27. Syzygium sp., 28. Undet, 29. Undet , 30. Undet, 31. Vatica micrantha, 32. Vernonia arborea}

Figure 4. Profile diagram of line 26, sub-plots 7-11 in the research plots Wanariset-Samboja, East Kalimantan in 1980.
^{Notes: 1. Aquilaria malaccensis Lam., 2. Borassodendron borneensis Dransfield, 3 Dillenia excelsa (Jack) Gilg, 4. Diospyros borneensis Hiern, 6. Drypetes laevis (Miq.) P. & H., 7. Gonystylus velutinus Airy-Shaw, 8. Horsfieldia grandis (Bl.) Warb., 9. Knema percoriacea Sincl., 10. Koompassia malaccensis Maing. ex Benth., 11. Lansium domesticum Correa, 12. Neesia synandra Mast., 13. Nephelium lappaceum L., 14 Palaquium dasyphyllum Pierre ex Dubard, 15. Pholidocarpus majadum Becc., 16. Polyalthia lateriflora (Bl.) King, 17. Polyalthia sp., 18. Polyalthia sumatrana (Miq.) Kurz, 19. Pometia pinnata Forst. & Forst., 20. Shorea lamellata Foxw., 21. Vatica rassak (Korth.) Bl.}

References

Ashton, P.S., 1982. Dipterocarpaceae. Flora Malesia Ser.I. 9 : 237-552

Kartawinata, K., Abdulhadi, R & Partomihardjo,T. 2001. Composition and structure of a lowland Dipterocarps forest at Wanariset, East Kalimantan. Malay.Forester 44 (2.3): 397-406

Kartawinata, K., Purwaningsih., Partomihardjo,T., Yusuf, R., Abdulhadi, R & Riswan, S. 2008. Floristics and structure of a lowland dipterocarp forest at Wanariset Samboja, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Reinwardtia Vol.12, Part 4, pp: 301-323

Philips, O.L., Hall, P., Gentry, A.H., Sawyer, S.A. & Vasquez, R. 1994. Dynamics and species richness of tropical rain forests. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 91 : 2805-2809

Simbolon, H., Siregar, M., Wakiyama, S., Sukigara, N., Abe, Y & Shimizu, H. 2005. Impacts of forest fires on tree diversity in tropical rain forest of East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Phyton 45: 551-559

Simbolon, H., 2000 Forest and land fires in Indonesia: A serious threat to the conservation of Biodiversity. In Shimizu, H. (ed.). Global Environmental Research on Biological and Ecological Aspect. Vol 1. Tokyo: Center for Global Environmental Research, NIES, Japan

Whitmore, T.C. 1984. Tropical rain forest of the far east. 2 nd edition. Clarendon Press, Oxford

Whitmore, T.C. 1986. Tropical rain forests of the far East. English Language Book Society Oxford University Press, Oxford. First edition.

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